HEALTH  STUDIES 


HOAG 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT  LOS  ANGELES 


GIFT  OF 

Dr.   EKNS3T   C.    MOORE 


HEALTH   STUDIES 

APPLIED  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE 


BY 

ERNEST  BRYANT  HOAG,  A.M.,  M.D. 

PIRF.CTOK    OK    HYGIENE   AND    PHYSICAL    EXAMINATIONS    IN    THROOP 

POLYTECHNIC  INSTITUTE  AND  THE  CITY  SCHOOLS  OK  PASADENA 

LECTURER   IN    HYGIENE,    UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA 


WITH   PREFATORY   NOTE   BY 
DAVID  STARR  JORDAN,  PH.D.,  M.D. 

PRESIDENT   OF   LELAND    STANFORD    JUNIOR    UNIVERSITY 


BOSTON,    U.S.A. 

D.  C.  HEATH    &   CO.,   PUBLISHERS 
1909 


COPYRIGHT,  1909, 
BY  D.  C.   HEATH  &  Co. 


TU 


PREFATORY  NOTE 


Tins  little  book  of  Health  Studies  is  the  work  of  a  wise  and 
earnest  man  who  is  also  a  successful  physician.  Doctor  Hoag  has 
tried  to  tell  young  people,  in  plain  and  direct  language,  how  to  take 
care  of  themselves  and  thus  to  take  the  ordinary  course  of  their  lives 
out  of  the  hands  of  himself  and  other  physicians.  For  the  most 
that  the  doctor  is  called  on  to  do,  in  our  day,  is  to  relieve  his  patients 
from  the  necessary  results  of  carelessness  or  ignorance,  on  their  part 
or  on  the  part  of  others.  When  carelessness  and  ignorance  can  be 
avoided,  we  call  it  criminal  not  to  do  so.  It  was  long  ago  said 
about  other  forms  of  wickedness,  "It  is  their  condemnation  that 
light  is  come  into  the  world.'1  Much  light  as  to  sickness  and  health 
has  come  of  late  years  through  the  advance  of  scientific  research. 
It  is  nowadays  the  "condemnation''  of  ignorance  that  truth  is  so 
easy  of  access.  Men  and  women  who  "ought  to  know  better"  than 
to  do  unwholesome  tilings  must  be  taught  to  do  better.  To  help 
the  young  people  in  our  schools,  who  will  be  men  and  women  before 
very  long,  to  know  the  truth  about  common  living  and  to  act  on 
such  knowledge  is  the  purpose  of  this  book.  And  having  read  the 
book  in  manuscript,  and  having  known  the  author  as  one  of  my  own 
students,  I  feel  sure  that  it  is  well  fitted  to  fulfill  its  purpose. 


STANFORD  UNIVERSITY. 


rv 


21516 


PREFACE 

ANATOMY  and  physiology,  except  in  their  simple  elements, 
are  of  doubtful  value  for  young  pupils.  But  the  study  of 
how  to  keep  well,  or  hygiene,  is  something  that  every  boy 
and  girl,  man  and  woman,  must  learn  or  else  must  suffer 
for  his  ignorance.  Hygiene,  properly  presented,  deals  with 
things  of  everyday  life.  No  pupil  in  the  schools  is  too  young 
to  begin  to  learn  how  to  adjust  himself  successfully  to  his 
surroundings.  This  learning  how  to  meet  our  environment, 
as  Professor  Huxley  long  ago  said,  constitutes  a  liberal 
education. 

Many  of  the  school  texts  have  been  based  too  exclusively 
on  physiology,  or  have  dealt  largely  with  elementary  anatomy, 
and  have  been  difficult  of  comprehension  to  the  pupils. 
HEALTH  STUDIES  differs  materially  from  such  books.  It 
makes  hygiene  the  primary  study,  and  introduces  only  a 
sufficient  amount  of  physiology  to  form  a  sound  basis  for 
the  study  of  health  principles. 

If  this  small  book  succeeds  in  helping  its  readers  to 
think  for  themselves  ;  if  it  encourages  them  in  making  their 
own  definitions ;  if  it  leads  them  to  realize  that  it  is  not 
ignorance  but  knowledge  which  leads  to  health,  and  there- 
fore happiness  ;  and  finally,  if  it  helps  to  prepare  them  to 
meet  practical  life  as  they  will  find  it,  —  then  its  appear- 
ance will  have  been  justified. 

These  studies  are  not  intended  for  memorizing.  They 
are  meant  to  encourage  thought  and  a  little  original  work  on 
the  part  of  the  pupil.  The  text,  to  be  successful,  must  be 
taken  as  a  basis  for  simple  discussions  about  the  things 


vi  PREFACE 

which  the  pupils  find  around  them  every  day,  and  not  merely 
as  lessons  to  be  learned.  The  lessons  should  be  made  a 
pleasure  rather  than  a  duty.  Any  pupil  can  be  interested  in 
the  things  of  real  life. 

The  criticism  will  perhaps  be  made  by  some  that  the 
lessons  are  not  presented  in  the  usual  way,  and  that  many 
things  are  introduced  which  are  difficult  for  young  students. 
The  writer  believes  that  this  subject  is  no  more  difficult  than 
arithmetic,  much  less  difficult  than  grammar,  and  consider- 
ably more  important  in  life  than  either  of  these  subjects. 

The  topics  on  each  chapter  (pages  181-198)  are  intended 
as  an  outline  for  discussion,  but  not  as  demands  upon  the 
pupil  to  be  rigidly  insisted  upon.  If  the  pupils,  after  review- 
ing these  topics,  will  make  out  from  them  a  written  outline  of 
each  chapter,  it  will  prove  a  helpful  exercise. 

The  suggestions  for  teachers,  which  are  found  in  the 
appendix  (page  205),  present  many  topics  for  class  discussion, 
give  ideas  of  how  to  start  pupils  on  a  little  original  obser- 
vation, and  furnish  a  bibliography  of  interesting  articles 
on  health  subjects  which  are  available  in  almost  every 
community. 

Suggestions  and  criticisms  from  teachers  who  are  really 
interested  in  health  work  and  in  trying  to  make  hygiene  and 
physiology  teaching  something  more  than  lessons  to  be  fin- 
ished by  the  pupil  will  be  greatly  appreciated  by  the  writer, 
who  has  here  ventured  into  a  comparatively  new  field. 

Many  friends  in  the  medical  and  educational  world  have 
given  useful  suggestions  during  the  preparation  of  the  manu- 
script. Cordial  thanks  are  due  Dr.  David  Starr  Jordan, 
President  of  Stanford  University;  Professor  I).  R.  Jones  of 
the  San  Francisco  Normal  School;  Dr.  N.  K.  Foster,  Sec- 
retary of  the  California  State  Hoard  of  Health,  Sacramento; 
Dr.  ().  F.  Reinhardt,  Professor  of  Hygiene,  University  of 


PREFACE  vii 

California;  Dr.  Ernest  A.  Sweet  of  the  Public  Health  and 
Marine  Hospital  Service,  San  Diego;  Dr.  1).  D.  Whedon, 
San  Diego ;  Mr.  Edward  Hyatt,  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction,  Sacramento;  Dr.  William  F.  Snow,  Professor  of 
Hygiene,  Stanford  University;  Miss  M.  Henderson  of  the 
State  Laboratory  of  Hygiene,  Berkeley  ;  Miss  Grace  Fisher, 
head  of  the  Department  of  Domestic  Economy,  Manual 
Training  School,  Menomonee,  Wisconsin  ;  Mr.  A.  L.  Hamil- 
ton, Superintendent  of  Schools,  Mr.  W.  H.  Holland,  Principal 
of  the  Garfield  School,  and  Miss  Virginia  Pease,  Principal 
of  the  Elementary  Polytechnic  School,  —  all  of  Pasadena. 

Particular  thanks  are  due  Dr.  Winfield  Scott  Hall,  Pro- 
fessor of  Physiology  in  Northwestern  University  Medical 
College,  who  wrote  the  chapter  on  Stimulants  and  Narcotics 
and  furnished  much  of  the  material  for  the  chapter  on  Food  ; 
and  to  Dr.  Arthur  R.  Reynolds,  formerly  Commissioner  of 
Health,  Chicago,  who  supplied  some  of  the  facts  for  the 
chapter  on  Public  Health. 

ERNEST   BRYANT   HOAG 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

THE  OBJECT  OF  HEALTH  STUDY i 

PART   I.     GENERAL   PHYSIOLOGY 

CHAPTER 

1.    THE  GENERAL  PLAN  OF  THE  Bony 5 

II.    THE  CELL  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  BODY 12 

III.  THE  ORGANS  OF  THE  BODY 15 

IV.  THE  BLOOD 24 

V.     FOOD  AND  DIGESTION 30 

VI.    THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM 44 

VII.    THE  LIVING  MACHINE 53 

PART    II.     HYGIENE 

VIII.     THE  NATURAL  DEFENSES  OF  THE  BODY      ....  59 

IX.     WHAT  HEALTH  DEI-ENDS  UroN 67 

X.    THE  CAUSES  OF  DISEASE 72 

XI.     CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES  AND  THEIR  CONTROL  81 

XII.       COLDS    AND    THEIR    PREVENTION 92 

XIII.  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 98 

XIV.  THE  HEALTHFUL  HOME .115 

XV.     THE  USE  AND  ABUSE  OF  FOOD 130 

XVI.     MILK  AND  WATER  SUFI-LIES 137 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PACK 

XVII.     STIMULANTS  AND  NARCOTICS 148 

XVIII.    THE  USK  AND  ABUSE  OF  DRUGS 156 

XIX.     ATHLETICS,  KXERCISE,  AND  OUTDOOR  LIFE       .        .        .  161 

XX.     PUBLIC  HEALTH 167 

XXI.     MAKING  THE  MOST  OF  LIFE 177 

TOPICS  FOR  DISCUSSION  AND  REVIEW 181 

APPENDIX 

WHY  A  WORLD  WARFARE  is  BEING  WAGED  AGAINST  TUBERCULOSIS  199 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TEACHERS 205 

Tones  ON  HEALTH  SUBJECTS 207 

PUBLICATIONS  ON  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HEALTH  Tones      .        .        .  208 

READING  REFERENCES  GROUTED  BY  SUBJECTS 210 

INDEX 217 


HEALTH    STUDIES 

THE   OBJECT  OF   HEALTH   STUDY 

IT  rarely  occurs  to  people  that  most  kinds  of  sick- 
ness are  preventable  accidents.  The  greatest  teacher  of 
science  that  England  ever  had,  Professor  Huxley,  once 
said  that  we  should  look  upon  most  cases  of  illness  as 
criminal.  What  he  meant  was  that  people  have  no 
right  to  treat  their  bodies  recklessly,  or  to  expose  others 
to  disease  by  their  own  carelessness.  Such  carelessness 
may  be  a  crime.  Every  one  who  becomes  sick  puts  a 
burden  on  somebody  else.  Every  one's  usefulness  is 
decreased  by  sickness. 

Another  great  Englishman,  many  years  ago,  said  that 
no  other  thing  has  detracted  so  much  from  happy  living 
as  our  sins  against  health,  and  those  of  our  forefathers. 

Man  has  always  been  most  afraid  of  those  things 
which  he  does  not  understand.  One  need  fear  disease 
far  less  when  one  really  understands  its  nature  and  how 
easily  it  can  often  be  avoided. 

We  are  all  ashamed  of  most  kinds  of  ignorance.  We 
wish  to  be  well  educated  in  order  to  succeed  in  the 
world,  and  because  it  makes  us  happier.  In  spite  of 
this  fact,  few  people  feel  any  shame  in  their  ignorance 
of  how  to  care  for  their  own  bodies.  Boys  and  girls 
often  pass  through  the  schools  knowing  almost  nothing 
of  how  the  body  does  its  work.  Many  men  and  women 
are  graduated  from  college  just  as  deficient  in  this  kind 


2  HEALTH    STUDIES 

of  knowledge.  Teachers,  lawyers,  ministers,  and  busi- 
ness men,  whom  we  all  respect,  sometimes  do  the  most 
foolish  things  imaginable  in  neglecting  the  care  of  their 
health. 

Knowledge  is  desirable  only  when  it  can  make  us  hap- 
pier or  more  useful.  Nothing  else  in  the  world  has  so 
much  to  do  with  happiness  and  usefulness  as  good 
health.  It  is  the  duty  of  every  one  to  learn  something 
of  how  his  body  does  its  >vork  and  how  that  work  can 
be  made  most  efficient.  It  is  not  essential  that  young 
students,  or  even  most  older  people,  should  know  a 
great  deal  about  the  structure  of  the  body.  This  is 
what  is  called  anatomy.  But  we  all  need  to  know  some- 
thing about  how  the  work  of  the  body  is  done.  This  is 
physiology.  We  ought  to  learn  even  more  about  the 
things  that  interfere  with  its  best  action,  and  how  to 
avoid  them.  This  is  hygiene. 

The  complete  study  of  the  human  body  is  one  of  the 
most  difficult  of  all  subjects.  No  piece  of  machinery, 
however  complicated  it  may  be,  can  compare  with  the 
body  in  this  respect.  But  without  trying  to  study  all 
the  details  of  its  structure  and  all  the  complicated  kinds 
of  work  which  it  does,  we  can  understand  enough  about 
this  human  machine  of  ours  to  learn  how  to  take  the 
best  care  of  it.  This  is  health  study,  for  hygiene  is  a 
word  which  means  simply  health. 


PART    I 
GENERAL    PHYSIOLOGY 


Skull 


Fic.  i.  —  TIIK  HUMAN  SKKI.KTON. 


CHAPTER   I 
THE  GENERAL  PLAN  OF  THE  BODY 

To  make  the  best  use  of  the  house  in  which  we  live, 
we  examine  first  the  general  plan  on  which  it  is  built. 
We  must  know  how  many  rooms  it  has,  what  is  the 
shape  of  the  rooms,  and  how  they  are  arranged  and 
connected.  The  appearance  of  the  house  as  a  whole 
also  interests  us.  In  studying  the  human  body  and  how 
to  make  the  best  use  of  it,  we  must  likewise  know  first 
something  of  the  general  plan  of  the  body  and  around 
this  build  up  our  knowledge. 

The  framework  of  the  body  is  shown    in    Figure   i 
on    page   4.       Notice   that   while    the    body  Theframe 
frame    has    many    separate    parts,    yet    they  work  of  the 
group  themselves  into  a  few  main  divisions: 

1.  The  box-like  skull. 

2.  The  backbone. 

3.  The  ribs  and  breast-bone. 

4.  The  arm  bones  and  hands. 

5.  The  shoulder  bones,  to  which  the  arm  bones 

are  attached. 

6.  The  leg  bones  and  feet. 

7.  The    hip   bones,   to    which    the    leg   bones    are 

attached. 

The  bony  part  of  the  body  is  called  the  skeleton. 

5' 


GENERAL   PHYSIOLOGY 


Enclosed  within  the  bony  framework  are  many  im- 
The  main        portant  parts,  or  organs,  of  the  body.     The 


divisions  of 
the  body 


body  as  a  whole  may  be  considered  as  sepa- 
rated into  four  main  divisions  (Fig.  2): 

1.  The  head. 

2.  The  chest. 

3.  The  abdomen. 

4.  The  appendages  (arms  and  legs). 

The  head  contains  the  brain,  the  eyes,  the  mouth, 
tongue,  and  teeth,  and  the  or- 
gans of  hearing  and  smelling. 

The  chest  contains  the  lungs, 
the  heart,  and  certain  large 
blood  vessels.  (See  Fig.  14, 
page  17.) 

The  abdomen  contains  the 
stomach,  the  intestines,  the 
liver,  and  other  organs  of  diges- 
tion. A  strong  partition,  called 
the  diaphragm,  separates  the 
abdomen  and  the  chest. 

The  delicate  organs  in  the 
head,  chest,  and  abdomen  are 
protected  by  the  bones.  The 
ribs,  breast-bone,  and  back- 
bone form  a  strong  sup- 
port and  protection  for  the 
organs  of  the  chest.  The 
ribs,  backbone,  and  hip 

1  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  body  may  be  divided  into  two 
vertical  cylinders.  The  one  behind  contains  the  nervous  system 
(brain  and  cord)  ;  the  one  in  front  contains  most  of  the  other  im- 
portant organs. 


Abdomen 


Fir..  2. 


-THE  MAIN   DIVISIONS 

OK  THK   BODY.1 


THE  GENERAL  PLAN  OF  THE  BODY 


bones  do  the  same  service  for  the  organs  of  the  ab- 
domen. 

The  backbone  encloses  the  spinal  cord.     This  cord  is 
somewhat   like  a   long  rod  which   passes  through   the 
center  of  the  backbone.     It  continues  through   The  brain 
an  opening  at  the  base  of  the  skull  and  con-  and  spinal 
nects   with    the   brain.     The   skull   and    the  c 
backbone    perfectly    protect    these    important    organs. 
The  backbone  is  composed 
of  a  series  of  separate  bones, 
called  vertebrae  (Fig.  3). 

Closely    connected    with 
the   bones    in    the   body   is 
muscle.     What 
we  speak   of   as 

lean   meat   of   any  kind    is      FIG.  3.-Two  VERTEBK.K  AM> 

A  PORTION  OF  THE  CORD. 


I  Cord 


Prrtctra 


Carti/agt 


The  muscles 


Showing  how  the  spinal  cord  passes 


muscle.       When     you     eat 
the  breast  of  a  chicken  or 

turkey,    yOU    are    eating    the    through  the  spinal  canal,  and  how  the 
J      J  vertebrae  rest  on  cartilage. 1 

large,   strong  muscles   that 

move  the  wings  and  ribs.  The  meat  of  the  drumstick 
is  made  up  of  the  muscles  that  pull  on  the  leg  bones 
and  make  walking  possible.  Motions  of  various  kinds 
are  made  by  muscles  pulling  on  the  bones.  (Fig.  4.) 

If  you  wish  to  move  a  rock  or  other  heavy  object, 
you  place  a  crowbar  under  it  and  then  bear 

,         r  -,       c      i        i  -T-I        How  muscles 

down  upon  the   tree  end  ot    the   bar.      1  he  and  bones 

crowbar  is    used   as    a   lever. 

many  of  the  bones  act  as  levers.     They  lift 

weights  and  bring  about  motions  of  various  kinds.     Just 

1  Cartilage  is  a  smooth,  elastic  substance  which  protects  bones 
and  prevents  them  from  jarring  against  one  another. 


In    the   body  produce  mo- 

J     tion 


GENERAL  PHYSIOLOGY 


!•'!<;.  4.  —  TIIK  MUSCLES  OK  IIIK  HOMY. 


THE   GENERAL   PLAN    OF   THE    HOUY 


Fir..  5.  —  THK  MUSCLE  THAT  MOVES  THE  FOREARM. 
Showing  the  change  in  the  muscle  when  it  causes  motion. 

as  some  force  must  work  on  the  lever  in  order  to  raise 
the  rock,  there  must  be  a  force  pulling  on  the  bone  to 
produce  motion.  This  force  comes  from  the  muscles. 
When  a  muscle  pulls  on  a  bone,  the  muscle  becomes 
shorter  and  thicker  (Fig.  5),  and  this  causes  motion. 

It  is  in  this  general  way  that  the  arms,  legs,  hands, 
feet,  head,  eyes,  and  other  parts  of  the  body  are  moved. 
In  walking,  one  foot  pushes  against  the  ground,  we  lean 
forward,  and  the  other  foot  is  carried  forward  to  save 
us  from  a  fall.  In  doing  all  this,  which  appears  so  sim- 
ple, many  muscles  and  bones  of  the  body  are  brought 
into  action. 

We   see,  therefore,  that  bones  are   neces-  The  uses  of 

bones 
sary  for  two  purposes  : 

1.  To  protect  important  organs,  such  as  the  brain, 

spinal  cord,  heart,  and  lungs. 

2.  For  muscles  to  pull  on,  so  that  motion  of  various 

kinds  can  be  made. 

Not  all  the  muscles  in  the  body  do  this  work  of 
pulling  on  the  bones  to  move  them.  The  tongue,  for 


10 


GENERAL   PHYSIOLOGY 


SOCKET  JOINT. 

At  the  hip;  showing 

ligament. 


is  held 
together 


example,    is    a    rather    large,    strong 
muscle.     It  does  not  pull  on  Muscleg 
any  bones,  but   is  used   in  that  do  not 
speaking     and     in     moving  pu 
food  about  in  the  mouth.     The  walls 
of  the  stomach  and  the  intestines  con- 
tain muscles  whose  work  is  to   force 
along  the  food.     The  tubes  in  which 
the  blood  flows  (blood  vessels)  contain 

FIG  6  —A  BALL  AND    musc^es  by  means  of  which  the  tube  is 
made  larger  or  smaller. 

The    many   bones    and    muscles   of 
the  body  are  firmly  united. 

J  '.  How  the 

Bones   are   connected    by    strong    ligaments  framework 
(Fig.   6).       Muscles   are   attached    to    bones 
by  means  of  tendons  (Fig.  7). 

In  the  skull  the  separate  bones 
are  joined  in  such  a  way  that 
they  cannot  be  moved.  In  other 
places  bones  can  be  moved  freely 
by  means  of  joints  (Fig.  7). 
There  are  several  kinds  of  joints 
in  the  skeleton.  At  a  hinge  joint, 
such  as  the  elbow,  the  bones  can 
be  moved  back  and  forth,  as  a 
door  moves  on  its  hinges.  A 
ball-and-socket  joint,  as  at  the 
shoulder,  allows  the  bones  to  move 
in  every  direction.  A  gliding 
Showing  ball  -  and  -  socket  joint,  as  in  the  wrist,  occurs  where 

joint  at   A,  hinge  joint    at    /?,       ,       a  c  c  ,  ,.  , 

biceps  muscle  at   C.  and  ten-     the  flat  SUrfaCC  °f  OIle  b°lle  glideS 

dons  at  D.  E,  and  /•.  or  slips  over  another  bone. 


Fir,.  7.  — THE  BONKS  OK 
ARM  AND  SUOUI.DKR. 


THE  GENERAL  PLAN  OF  THE  BODY 


1 1 


The  movements  of  bones  and  muscles  are  directed  by 
the  nervous  system.  This  consists  of  the  brain,  the 
spinal  cord,  and  the  nerves.  The  nerves  are 

.    .        ,.,  ...  General  out- 

strmg-hke    structures    which    connect    every  iine  Of  the 

part  of  the  body  with  the  brain  and  spinal   nervous  sys- 
tem 
cord.       Certain    nerves    carry    messages    to 

muscles  and  other  parts  of  the  body.     A  muscle  never 
moves  (i.e.  shortens)  until  it  receives  a  message  from 


FIG.  8. —THE  COURSE  OF  A  NERVE  MESSAGE  FROM  SKIN  SURFACE 
TO  MUSCLE. 

the  brain  or  spinal  cord.  Other  nerves  carry  messages 
back  to  the  brain  and  cord.  For  instance,  if  the  hand 
is  burned,  a  message  passes  along  certain  nerves  to  the 
brain,  or  cord,  or  both.  The  brain  or  cord  then  sends 
back  word  to  the  muscles  ;  the  muscles  pull  on  the 
bones  of  the  arm,  and  the  hand  is  jerked  away  (Fig.  8). 
Later  we  shall  learn  that  there  is  another  part  of  the 
nervous  system  not  described  here,  which  is  known  as 
the  sympathetic  system. 


CHAPTER   II 
THE  CELL  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  BODY 

Now  that  we  have  surveyed  the  general  plan  of  the 
body  as  a  whole,  we  will  see  of  what  it  is  made.  The 
The  ceils  of  body  is  built  up  from  millions  of  tiny  parts, 
the  body  \ye  cajj  these  parts  cells,  because  they  were 
at  first  thought  to  be  somewhat  like  the  cells  of  a 
honeycomb  full  of  honey.  (Fig.  9.) 
Each  cell  is  so  small  that  it  cannot 
be  seen  without  the  use  of  a  strong 
microscope.  Not  a  cell  in  the 
whole  body  is  large  enough  to  be 
seen  with  the  naked  eye.  Each 
tiny  cell  lives  a  life  of  its  own, 

FIG.  9.-FLATCELI*  FROM    and      each      ^     {          WQrk  j 

THE  SKIN. 

The    living    substance    of    which 

the  cell  is  composed  is  called  protoplasm. 

Numberless  single  bricks,  as  we  know,  are  put  to- 
gether to  build  a  brick  house.  We  can  imagine  that  the 
cells  in  the  body  are  built  together  in  a  similar 
ceils  are  held  way.  The  bricks  must  be  held  in  place  by 
together  mortar.  The  cells,  also,  need  something  to 
support  them  and  hold  them  together.  Such  a  sub- 
stance is  found  between  and  around  the  cells  (Fig.  10^. 
Some  parts  of  the  body,  where  strength  is  required,  con- 
tain a  great  deal  of  this  cementing  substance.  Other 
parts,  where  strength  is  not  so  necessary,  contain  very 
little  of  it. 

12 


THE  CELL  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  BODY 


FIG.  10.  —  CELLS  AND 
THE  MATERIAL  THAT 
HOLDS  THEM  TOGETHER. 


Other  things  besides   the  human  body  are  made  of 

cells.     In  fact,  every  ordinary  living  thing  —  plants  as 

well  as  animals  —  is  made  up  of 

millions  of  cells. 

Every  living  plant  and  animal 

begins  life  as  a  single  cell.     This 

The  single       nrst     cell      grows     and 

cel1  multiplies.     One  brick 

cannot  produce  other  bricks  from 

which  to  build  a  house,  but  the 

cell  can  do  this.    That  is  the  way 

plants  and  animals  grow. 

There    are    some    plants    and 

some   animals    which   always  remain  single  cells,  and 

yet  they  are  perfect  living  things  in  their  way.     The 

amoeba  is  a  minute,  single-cell  animal  found  in  stagnant 

water  (Fig.  u).     Yeast,  which  we  use  to  fnake  bread 

rise,  is  composed  of  millions  of  single  cells,  each  one  a 

complete />/««/  in  itself  (Fig.  12). 

In  the  human  body  millions  and  millions  of  cells  result 

from  the  growth  of  the  first  single  cell.  The  brain  alone 
is  said  to  have  at  least  four  hun- 
dred million  cells  (400,000,000). 
All  cells  become  dependent  upon 
one  another,  and  they  work  together 
to  perform  the  various  things  that 
must  be  done  in  the  body.  The  life 

THE  AMCEBA,  of  the  body  must  be  thought  of  as 
jjfe  of  the  cdls  that  compose  jt 

The  food  that  we  eat  goes,  not  simply  to  the  stomach, 
but  to  every  little  worker  or  cell  in  the  body.  The 
stomach  is  only  a  receptacle  for  the  food.  It  helps 


FIG.  ii. 

A  ONE-CELLED  ANIMAL. 


GENERAL   PHYSIOLOGY 


cells 


FIG.  12.  — YEAST  PLAN  is. 


prepare  it  for  the  workers.     The  blood  carries  this  food 

_     .  .          to  them.     We  breathe  fresh  air,  not  simply 
Nourish- 
ment for  the  that  the  lungs  may  be  filled  with  it.     The  lungs 

are  only  reservoirs.  From  the  lungs  air  must 
be  carried  by  the  blood  to 
every  cell. 

What  we  must  always 
remember  in  the  study  of 
the  human  body  is  this: 
its  work  can  be  done  only 
by  the  aid  of  these  many 
individual  helpers.  The 
care  of  the  body  is,  after 
all,  the  care  of  a  great 
army  of  small  workers 
which  we  call  cells. 
In  this  army  some  members  are  generals ;  some  are 
ordinary  fighters ;  some  are  rubbish  carriers ;  some 
The  work  of  carry  air ;  some  carry  food  from  place  to 
the  ceils  place ;  some  store  away  extra  food  for  future 
use ;  some  prepare  food  for  the  others ;  some  help  to 
repair  injuries ;  some  supply  natural  medicines.  In 
fact,  the  army  of  cell  workers  in  our  bodies  is  much 
like  an  army  of  soldiers. 

"  Each  cell  must  take  food  for  itself  and  grow.  Each 
has  a  birth,  life,  and  death,  as  each  individual  in  a 
The  life  of  community  of  men;  and  as  the  community 
the  ceils  continues,  while  the  individual  members 
are  constantly  changing,  so,  in  the  body,  while  the  form 
remains  about  the  same  from  year  to  year  (in  the  adult), 
the  cells  are  continually  changing,  some  dying,  and 
others  taking  their  places.  Each  lives  for  itself,  yet 
all  work  together  for  the  common  good." 


CHAPTER   III 
THE  ORGANS  OF  THE   BODY 

IN  order  that  they  may  do  their  work,  many  of  the 
cells  in  the  body  are  arranged  in  groups.     When  a  num- 
ber of  different  kinds  of  cells  group  themselves  what  an 
together  to  perform  a  certain  kind  of  work,  <>rgan  Js 
they  form  an  organ.     The  brain,  heart,  liver,  intestines, 
stomach,   lungs,   kidneys,  and   tongue  are  examples  of 
such  organs  (Fig.  14). 

The  cells  which  compose  one  organ  are  different  from 
those  which  form  another.  This  is  because  the  organs 
have  different  kinds  of  work  or,  as  we  say,  functions  to 
perform.  The  cells  of  the  brain,  for  instance,  are  un- 
like those  of  the  heart,  and  the  cells  of  the  stomach 
differ  from  those  of  the  tongue. 

Each  organ  is  made  up  of  more  than  one  kind  of  cell. 
For  example,  the  brain  has  nerve  cells,  blood  cells, 
and  supporting  cells.  These  groups  of  cells 

Tissues 

within  the  organ  we  call  tissues.     In  other 
parts  of  the  body,  also,  besides  the  organs,  the  cells  of 
each  kind  are  grouped  in  tissues.     The  whole  body  is 
made  up  of  tissues. 

One  of  the  most  important  organs  of  the  human  body 
is  the  brain.     The  cells  of  the  brain  have  to  The  brain: 
send  out  messages  to  every  part  of  the  body. 
When  we  move  our  legs  or  arms  or  work  the  cells 
eyes,  a  message  is  first  sent  from  the  cells  of  the  brain 

'5 


16  GENERAL   PHYSIOLOGY 

to  the  muscles  of  the  part  we  wish  to  move.  These 
cells  which  send  out  messages  to  muscles  are  called 
motor  cells.  (Fig.  13.) 

Other  cells  in  the  brain  are  used  entirely  for  receiving 
messages  from  outside.  We  have  learned  that  when 
the  hand  touches  something  hot,  a 
message  travels  like  lightning  along 
certain  nerves  to  the  spinal  cord  and 
the  brain.  Quickly  a  set  of  cells  (the 
motor  cells)  sends  a  message  to  the 
muscles  of  the  arm,  and  the  hand  is 
drawn  from  the  dangerous  place. 
When  this  message  is  received  by 
another  set  of  nerve  cells  in  the  brain, 
we  become  conscious  of  the  burn. 
These  cells  which  receive  messages 
from  outside  we  call  sensory  cells. 
FIG  -A  NERVE  These  messages  are  sent  along  the 
CELL  OK  THE  BRAIN,  nerves.  The  nerves  which  carry  mes- 
sages to  the  brain  are  called  sensory 
nerves,  and  those  which  take  messages  from  the  brain 
to  muscles  are  called  mo  for  nerves. 

The  heart  is  a  large,  hollow  muscle  which  pumps  blood 

through   the  blood   tubes  connected  with  it. 

It  is  composed  of  muscle  cells.     Such  cells 

are  meant  for  work,  just  as  are  the  cells  in  the  muscles 

of  the  arm. 

The  kidneys  have  the  power  of  selecting  and  taking 
out  from  the  blood  which  flows  through  them  sub- 
Organs  of  stances  that  are  of  no  further  use  to  the 
excretion  body.  An  organ  which  helps  the  body 
to  rid  itself  of  waste  substances  is  called  an  organ 


THE   ORGANS   OF   THE    BODY 


Cranial    if-" 
cavity 


Abdominal 
cavity 


Fir..  14.  —  DIAGRAM  SHOWING  THK  LOCATION  OF  THK  PRINCIPAL  ORGANS. 

of  excretion.1     The  principal  organs  of  excretion  are : 
i.    The  kidneys.  3.    The  skin. 


2.    The  lungs. 


4.    The  intestines. 


1  To  excrete  means  to  throw  off  waste  materials  :  to  secrete  is  to  sepa- 
rate material  from  the  blood  and  make  new  substances  of  this  material. 


1 8  GENERAL   PHYSIOLOGY 

The  lungs,  skin,  and  intestines  have  other  functions 
than  that  of  excretion,  but  as  they  help  to  remove 
wastes  from  the  body,  they  may  be  included  among 
the  organs  of  excretion.1 

The  kidneys  excrete  urine,  a  waste  substance  which 
contains  a  poison.  It  collects  in  a  reservoir  called  the 
The  kidneys  bladder.  This  is  a  thin- walled,  somewhat 
and  bladder  eiastjc  sac,  which  acts  as  a  storage  place  or 
reservoir  for  urine. 

The  largest  organ  in  the  body  is  the  liver.  It  is 
The  liver  solid  and  compact.  The  liver  has  two 
principal  uses  : 

1.  Its  cells  manufacture  bile  from  the  blood  passing 

through  the  liver.     (See  page  40.) 

2.  The   liver   stores  up   a  form   of    animal   starch 

called  glycogent  which  it  gives  back  to  the 
body  as  needed. 

We  speak  of  the  intestines  as  if  they  were  made  up 
of  several  organs,  but  this  is  not  strictly  true.  The 
The  intes-  intestines  consist  of  a  tube  about  twenty-five 
tines  f£ej-  long.  In  order  to  accommodate  itself  to 

the  body  this  tube  is  coiled.  Different  names  are  given 
to  different  parts  of  the  tube.  The  first  twenty  feet, 
starting  at  the  stomach,  are  called  the  small  intestine. 
The  remaining  five  feet  make  up  the  huge  intestine. 
The  large  intestine  ends  in  the  rectum.  The  appendix 
is  at  the  juncture  of  the  large  and  small  intestines ;  it 
is  inflammation  in  this  place  which  causes  appendicitis. 

Vegetable-eating  animals  like  the  rabbit,  horse,  cow, 

1  The  liver  helps  to  rid  the  body  of  undesirable  substances,  but  it 
also  furnishes  useful  material.  It  is  classed  as  a  secreting  organ. 


THE   ORGANS   OF   THE    BODY 


and  deer  require  more  room  in  the  large  intestine  than 
meat-eating  animals  do.  In  man  the  large  intestine  is 
much  longer  than  is  necessary.  This  is  because  his 
habits  of  life  have  become  very  different  from  what  they 
were  ages  ago.  As  a  result,  the  large  intestine  is  likely 
to  contain  much  waste  food  material.  This  material  often 
ferments  and  decomposes  and  may  poison  the  body. 

The  stomach  is  usually 
spoken  of  as  a  separate 

The  organ.     It  is,  in 

stomach          fact>  on]y  a  part 

of  the  intestinal  tube 
widened  out  for  the  pur- 
pose of  receiving  food.  It 
is  a  sort  of  temporary  store- 
room where  food  is  partially 
prepared  to  be  absorbed 
into  the  blood.  We  shall 
later  learn  how  food  is 
digested  ;  that  is,  prepared 
so  that  the  blood  can  absorb 
it  and  carry  it  to  the  cells 
all  through  the  body. 

Beginning  with  the 
mouth  and  including  the 
The  diges-  gullet,  stomach, 
tive  tract.  small  intestine, 

large  intestine,  and  rectum, 


FIG.  15.  —  THE  DIGESTIVE  SYSTEM. 


i,  the  gullet;    2,  stomach;    3,  small 

we    have    one    continuous  intestine .  4i  large  intestine .  5i  appen. 

tube,     wide     in    Some     parts    dix;    6,  liver;    7,  pancreas;    8,  spleen. 

and  narrow  in  others.     The  The  V™er  is  here  «*resented  as  «««» 

somewhat   so   as    to   show   the    organs 

entire   tube    is   called    the  behind  it. 


20  GENERAL   PHYSIOLOGY 

digestive  tract.  The  work  of  the  digestive  tract  is  to 
prepare  food  for  absorption  arm  to  carry  away  wastes 
from  the  body.  Most  of  this  absorption  takes  place 
in  the  small  intestine.  (Fig.  15.) 

Certain    organs  in   the  body  are  known  as  glands. 

They  secrete  from  the  blood  some  substance  useful  to 

the  body.     Most  glands  have  a  little  tube  or 

duct  leading   from  them  to  carry  away  the 

secretion.     The  liver  is  the  largest  of  the  glands.     The 

duct  from  the  liver  is  called  the  bile  duct.     It  leads  to 

the  small  intestine. 

All  through  the  body  are  little  lumps  or  nodules 
called  lymph  glands.  What  are  commonly  called  ker- 
nels in  the  neck  are  examples  of  such  glands.  They 
are  lymph  glands  which  have  become  swollen  ;  some- 
times they  are  very  tender. 

The  ducts  from  the  salivary  glands  lead  to  the  mouth 
and  carry  saliva.  (See  Fig.  24,  page  39.) 

Such  glands  as  the  spleen  and  thyroid  have  no  ducts ; 
the  blood  directly  absorbs  the  useful  material  which 
they  produce. 

The  principal  glands  in  the  body  are  : 

1.  The  liver. 

2.  The  spleen. 

3.  The  pancreas. 

4.  The  thyroid. 

5.  The  lymph  glands. 

6.  The  salivary  glands. 

7.  The  small   glands  in  the  walls 

of  the  stomach  and  intestines. 

When  organs  perform  a  work  in  common,  they  form 


THE   ORGANS   OF   THE    BODY  21 

a  system.     The  digestive  tube,  together  with  the  liver, 
pancreas,  and  certain  glands  in  the  walls  of  The 
the    stomach   and    intestines,    is    called    the  tems  of  the 
digestive  system  (Fig.   15). 

The  heart  and  all  the  large  and  small  blood  vessels 
connected  with  it  form  the  circulatory  system  (Fig.  17). 

The  brain  and  the  spinal  cord,  and  all  the  nerves  pass- 
ing to  and  from  them,  form  the  nervous  system  (Fig.  29). 

The  lungs,  together  with  the  windpipe,  nose,  and 
throat,  form  the  respiratory  system  (Fig.  16). 

All  the  muscles  taken  together  give  us  the  muscular 
system  (Fig.  4). 

The  bones  of  the  body  together  comprise  the  bony  or 
osseous  system  (Fig.  i). 

Those  organs,  such  as  the  kidneys,  which  take  waste 
substances  out  of  the  body  comprise  the  excretory  system. 

The  principal  systems  of  the  body  are : 

1.  The  digestive  system. 

2.  The  circulatory  system. 

3.  The  nervous  system. 

4.  The  respiratory  system. 

5.  The  muscular  system. 

6.  The  osseous  system. 

7.  The  excretory  system. 

8.  The  glandular  system. 

Each  system  is  composed  of  organs. 

Each  organ  is  composed  of  tissues. 

Each  tissue  is  composed  of  cells. 

Any  impairment  of  an  organ  or  system  in  the  body 
is  sure  to  injure  all  the  other  organs  and  systems  also. 
If  the  stomach  refuses  to  do  its  full  share  of  work,  the 


22 


GENERAL   PHYSIOLOGY 


food  is  not  prepared  properly  for  absorption  by  the 
in'u  to  one  bl°°cL  Food  may  remain  much  too  long  in 
organ  affects  the  stomach  and  intestines;  thus,  instead  of 
furnishing  the  body  with  material  for  growth 
and  strength,  it  may  become  an  actual  poison.  The  blood 
absorbs  such  poisons  from  the  walls  of  the  stomach  and 
intestines  and  carries  them  to  all  parts  of  the  body.  It 

follows,  of  course,  that  the 
individual  cannot  then  do  his 
full  amount  of  useful  work. 
Many  headaches  and  the  com- 
mon feelings  of  depression  are 
caused  in  this  way. 

No  one  can  have  pure,  rich 
blood  when  the  digestive 
organs  do  not  prepare  food 
in  the  proper  way  for  absorp- 
tion by  the  blood.  The  blood 
stream  of  a  person  suffering 
from  constant  indigestion  is 
much  like  a  polluted  river. 
As  the  blood  carries  the  ab- 
sorbed food  to  every  organ  in 


FIG.  16.  — THE  RESPIRATORY 
SYSTEM. 


I,   air   passage   from   nose;     2, 

windpipe;   3,  the  lungs;    4,  bron-  ., 

dual   tubes.     Notice   the   position     the  bod>'.  ^  Can  easily  Under- 

heart,  lying  back  of  the   stand  how  important  it  is  for 
the   welfare    of   the   body  to 
have  healthy  digestive  organs. 

In  much  the  same  way,  if  the  lungs  fail  to  do  full  duty, 
The  work  of  a  serious  burden  is  placed  on  the  other  organs. 


of  the 

lungs;  also  the  diaphragm. 


the  lungs 


we  breathe,  the   lungs  take  in   o.xygen 


1  O. \ygen  is  a  gas  which  forms  about  one  fifth  of  the  air. 
necessary  to  all  animal  and  vegetable  life. 


It  is 


THE   ORGANS   OF   THE    BODY  23 

from  the  air  and  give  out  waste  substances.     (Fig.  16.) 
It  is  the  business  of  the  lungs  : 

1.  To  furnish  oxygen  to  the  blood. 

2.  To   take    from    the    blood    certain    waste   sub- 

stances l  which  various  organs  have  produced. 

If  we  fail  to  breathe  deeply,  if  we  fail  to  develop 
large,  strong  lungs,  if  we  live  in  badly  ventilated  rooms, 
—  then  we  cannot  secure  the  right  amount  of  oxygen 
for  the  blood,  nor  can  we  get  rid  of  all  the  harmful 
things  in  the  blood. 

If  we  close  the  draft  in  a  stove,  we  must  not  expect 
much  heat.  If  we  let  the  ashes  accumulate,  the  stove 
will  not  work  well.  Yet  many  people  do  just  such 
things  as  these  with  their  bodies  and  expect  good 
results. 

As  a  piece  of  complicated  machinery,  the  human 
body  needs  the  best  possible  study  and  care  to  keep 
it  in  good  working  order. 

1  The  waste  substance  which  the  blood  leaves  at  the  lungs  is 
carbon  dioxide.  This  is  a  gas  which  escapes  from  the  body  in  the 
air  which  we  breathe  out  from  the  lungs.  It  would  poison  the  body 
if  we  could  not  get  rid  of  it.  Green  plants,  however,  constantly  make 
use  of  carbon  dioxide  in  growing.  This  is  one  of  the  differences 
between  animals  and  the  green  plants. 


CHAPTER    IV 
THE   BLOOD 

THOUGH  blood  is  familiar  to  us,  most  of  us  know  little 
about  what  it  is  and  what  work  it  does.  If  we  can 
thoroughly  learn  what  the  blood  does  in  the  body,  we 
shall  then  understand  one  of  the  most  important  parts 
of  the  whole  subject  of  physiology. 

In   some  animals  the  blood  does  not  run  in    closed 

tubes  or  vessels,  but  in  the  higher  animals  and  in  man 

it  does.     The  blood  system  in  our  bodies  is 

General  out-  11-1 

line  of  the      much  like  the  waterworks  system  of  a  city, 
circulatory     The  Water  runs  through  a  set  of  pipes  and  is 

system  . 

kept  running  by  means  ot  a  great  pump  at  the 
central  station.  But  there  is  one  great  difference  between 
our  blood  system  and  a  water  system.  In  the  body  the 
blood  rinqs  from  the  central  pump,  which  is  the  heart ', 
through  a  set  of  tubes  or  blood  vessels,  and  then,  after 
passing  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  it  goes  back  to  the 
heart  again.  In  the  waterworks  system  the  water  leaves 
the  central  pump,  goes  into  the  pipes,  is  drawn  off  at 
the  water  taps,  and  does  not  go  back  to  the  central 
pump.  Instead  of  returning,  it  passes  into  the  sewer 
pipes  and  is  not  used  again. 

Just  as  every  street  of  a  city  must  have  its  water 
supply  and  every  house  on  all  the  streets,  so  every 
part  of  the  body  must  have  its  blood  supply,  and  every 
organ  and  cell  in  all  these  parts.  The  large  pipes  of 

24 


THE   BLOOD 


FIG.  17.  —  DIAGRAM  SHOWING  THE  CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD. 

a  water  system  divide  into  smaller  and  smaller  ones,  so 
that  at  last  the  water  comes  to  our  houses  in 

How  the 

very   small   pipes.      In    the    same   way,    the  blood  supply 
large   blood    vessels   which    leave   the   heart  refches  the 

.  cells 

divide    into   many   smaller    ones.     An   organ 

like   the    stomach   or    liver    receives    many   very   small 


26 


GENERAL   PHYSIOLOGY 


blood  vessels,  which  have  divided  off  from  the  large 
tubes  running  near  the  organ.  (Fig.  17.) 

The  little  blood  vessels  not  only  become  smaller  in 
size,  but  their  walls  or  sides  become  much  thinner. 
The  smaller  tubes  have  walls  so  thin  that  some  of  the 
liquid  part  of  the  blood  can  ooze  through.  This  liquid 
part  of  the  blood,  after  it  has  oozed  from  the  smallest 
blood  vessels,  is  called  lymph.  It  contains  the  food  and 
oxygen  with  which  the  cells  are  fed.  Every  cell  in  the 
body  is  constantly  bathed  in  lymph. 

The  tubes  which  carry  the  blood  are  called  arteries, 
veins,  and  capillaries.  TJie  arteries  carry  blood  from 
Arteries  ^le  ^iearf  to  the  different  parts  of  the  body, 
veins,  and  TJie  veins 1  carry  the  blood  back  to  tlie  licart. 
The  capillaries  are  the  thin-walled  tubes, 
through  the  walls  of  which  food  and  oxygen  pass  to 
the  cells  (Fig.  18). 


Frc.  18.  —  ARTERY,  CAPILLARIES,  ANI>  VEIN. 
The  shading  indicates  the  change  in  the  color  of  the  blood. 

1  In  arteries  the  blood  is  red  ;  in  veins  it  is  bluish  in  color.  This 
is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  arteries  carry  blood  rich  in  oxygen, 
while  the  blood  in  veins  is  poor  in  oxygen.  The  blood  in  arteries 
takes  up  oxygen  at  the  lungs  and  contains  very  little  carbon  dioxide. 
In  passing  through  the  capillaries,  it  gives  oxygen  to  the  cells  and 


FIG.  19.— RED  AND  WHITE 
BI.OOD  CORPUSCLES. 


THE   BLOOD  2/ 

The  movement  of  the  blood  from  the  heart,  through 
the  arteries,  and  then  through  the  capillaries  close  to 
the  cells,  and  finally  in  the 
veins  back  to  the  heart,  is 
called  the  circulation.  The 
parts  of  the  body  which  do 
this  work  together  form  the 
circulatory  system. 

The    mistake    must   not    be 
made  of  thinking  of  the  blood 
as  entirely  liquid.     It  is,  in  fact,  part  liquid  and  part 
solid.     It  may  be  described  as  a  stream  in  piasma  and 
which  float  two  kinds  of  solid  bodies.     The  corpuscles 
stream  or  fluid  part  is  called  plasma.     The  solid  parts 
are  called  the  red  and  white  blood  corpuscles  (Fig.  19). 

Why  do  we  need  a  set  of  blood  vessels  with  a  great 
pump  called  the  heart  to  drive  the  blood  through  the 
body  ?    The  answer  is  a  long  and  complicated  Functions  of 
one,  but  we  shall  try  to  make  it  as  simple  as  the  blood 
possible. 

1.  Food  must  be  carried  by  the  blood  to  every  part 

of  the  body.     Every  cell  worker  must  be  fed. 
The  plasma  of  the  blood  carries  food. 

2.  Air  (oxygen)  also  must  be  carried  by  the  blood 

to   every    part.  .    The    red    corpuscles    carry 
oxygen. 

3.  Waste  substances  which  the   body  cannot  use 

must   be    carried    away  by  the    blood.     The 
plasma  carries  away  waste  substances. 


receives  from  them  carbon  dioxide.     Consequently,  when  it  reaches 
the  veins,  the  blood  has  changed  its  composition  and  color. 


28 


GENERAL   PHYSIOLOGY 


4.  The  blood  keeps  the  temperature  of  the  body 
nearly  the  same  in  every  part.  (See  page 
32.) 

We    might  think  of  the  blood  as  a  train  of  freight 

cars.     These   cars  load  up  with  food  which  has  been 

made   liquid  at  the  stomach  and    intestines, 

How  food 

goes  to  the     and  carry  it  to  all  parts  of  the  body  which 
need  it.     Now  we  can  understand  one  reason 

why  the  blood  vessels  must  have  thin  walls  when  they 

pass  into  an  organ  like 
the  liver,  to  muscles  like 
those  of  the  arm,  or  to 
the  brain,  eyes,  skin,  or 
any  other  part.  Liquid 
food  must  pass  through 
the  walls  of  the  capillaries 
to  feed  every  cell  of  the 
body.  (Fig.  2O.) 

At  the  lungs  our  train 
of  freight  cars  (that  is,  the 

FI<;.  20.-CKLLS  AM,  CAPILLARIES,     blood) picks  up   How  oxygen 


Showing  capillaries  brandling  among     Oxygen 


from    goes  to  the 
the  cells,  and   the  interchange  of  food     t  h  C       air       W  C 
and  wastes.  ,  „,,  .      . 

breathe.     This  it  carries, 

along  with  the  food  which  has  been  taken  on  at  the 
stomach  and  intestines,  to  all  the  different  parts  of 
the  body.  Like  the  food,  oxygen  passes  through  the 
thin  walls  of  the  capillaries,  and  is  taken  up  by  the 
cells. 

We  may  also  think  of  the  blood  as  a  train  of  freight 
cars   carrying  substances   away  from    the    parts   which 


THE    BLOOD  29 

have  no  further  need  of  them.     Some  of  these  wastes 
are  unloaded   at  the   lungs,  where  they  are  How  wastes 
breathed  out,  or  exhaled ;  others  are  deposited  leave  the 
at  the  kidneys  and  leave  the  body  in  the  form 
of  water.     Others  pass  out  through  the  skin  and  leave 
as  perspiration. 

It  is  therefore  plain  that  the  blood  is  the  common 
carrier  of  the  body,  bringing  in  those  things  which  the 
body  requires  for  its  healthy  growth,  and  carrying  away 
those  which  are  worn  out  and  useless. 

When  we  come  to  study  something  about  diseases 
which  affect  the  body,  we  shall  learn  that  the  blood  has 
many  other  useful  functions  in  addition  to  those  just 
described. 

The   heart  is  an  enlarged   part  of  the  blood   tubes, 
constructed  so  as  to  serve  as  a  receptacle  and  a  strong 
pump.     In  some  animals  the  heart  is  merely  The  struc. 
a  large  tube,  which  contracts  and  sends  the   ture  of  the 
blood  through  the  other  tubes.     In  certain 
other  animals  the  heart  has  two  parts  or  cavities;    in 
others  it  has  three  such  divisions;  in  man  there  are.  four 
divisions. 


CHAPTER   V 
FOOD  AND  DIGESTION 

THE   USES   OF   FOOD 

FOOD  for  the  body  is  anything  that  can  furnish 
material  for  growth,  repair  waste,  and  supply  power 
and  heat  to  the  body. 

Food  is  what  enables  cells  to  grow  and  to  make  new 
cells.  It  is  the  building  material  of  the  body.  After 
Food  is  a  Person  reaches  full  development,  food  for, 
needed  for  growth  is  no  longer  needed.  For  this  reason 
growth  a  y0ung  animai  or  a  growing  boy  requires 
more  food  than  an  adult. 

All  through  one's  lifetime,  however,  portions  of  the 
Food  is  for  body  are  wearing  out  and  are  in  need  of 
repair  repair.  Food  is  constantly  needed  to  supply 

material  for  repairing  the  parts  that  are  worn  out. 

The  body  gets  from  food  also  the  power  to  perform 
work.  The  amount  of  work  an  engine  can  do  depends 
Food  sup-  directly  upon  the  amount  of  fuel  it  can  utilize, 
plies  power  jn  tne  same  way,  the  amount  of  work  which 
a  man  can  do  depends  upon  the  amount  of  proper  food 
which  is  supplied  to  the  cells  of  his  body. 

The  reason  our  bodies  are  warm  is  because  we  eat 
certain  heat-giving  foods  (or  fuel  foods),  and  these  unite 
Food  sup-  with  oxygen  in  the  body.  Oxygen  is  taken 
plies  heat  jn  through  the  lungs  with  every  breath  and  is 
really  part  of  the  food  for  the  body.  It  is  carried  by 

30 


FOOD   AND   DIGESTION  31 

the   blood,  as  we    have   learned,   to  every  cell  in   the 
body. 

A  piece  of  wood  burns  because  the  substance  of  the 
wood  (carbon)  and  the  oxygen  of  the  air  unite.     This 
union  of  carbon  and  oxygen  produces  com-  combustion 
bustion  or  oxidation,  as  it  is  called.     If  the  or  oxidation 
union  takes  place  rapidly,  a  great  deal  of  heat  is  formed. 
When  carbon    and    oxygen   unite,   a  new  substance  is 
formed,  called  carbon-dioxide.      It  is  a  waste  product  of 
combustion. 

In  our  bodies  this  burning  or  combustion  process  is 
almost  exactly  like  the  burning  of  coal  or  wood  or  gas. 
The  principal  difference  is  that  it  is  slower.  Combus- 
tion in  our  bodies  begins  with  life,  and  fuel  foods  keep 
it  up.  These  foods  unite  with  the  oxygen  and  are 
burned  or  oxidized, 

The  body  in  health  produces  an  even  amount  of  heat, 
the  temperature  being  about  985-°.  With  some  diseases 
there  is  much  fever,  and  the  temperature  may  The  rate  of 
rise  to  1 02°  or  even  1 05°,  and  occasionally  a  few  combustion 
degrees  higher.  When  this  happens,  the  tissues  of  the 
body  are  burning  rapidly  and  the  sick  person  becomes 
very  thin.  Animals  that  live  extremely  active  lives,  such 
as  birds,  use  oxygen  rapidly  and  have  high  tempera- 
tures. Other  animals  of  more  sluggish  movements,  such 
as  toads  and  snakes,  use  oxygen  slowly  and  have  lower 
temperatures. 

When  we  do  very  active  work,  as  in  running  or  in 
taking  brisk  walks,  we  breathe  rapidly  and  use  a  great 
deal  of  oxygen.  If  enough  food  is  eaten,  the  body  will 
lose  little  or  no  weight.  But  if  one  does  much  work 
and  takes  but  little  food,  the  cells  wear  away  faster. 


32  GENERAL   PHYSIOLOGY 

than  they  are  repaired,  and  the  body,  loses  weight 
rapidly. 

One  might  think  that  when  oxygen  is  taken  in  rapidly 
with  active  exercise,  the  temperature  of  the  body  should 
The  ula-  rise,  just  as  the  temperature  of  a  stove  rises 
tion  of  body  when  the  draft  is  opened.  This  does  not 
happen,  because  we  have  a  perfect  device 
for  regulating  temperature.  As  combustion  increases, 
the  blood  vessels  of  the  skin  dilate  (that  is,  become 
larger),  and  more  blood  comes  to  the  skin  surfaces. 
Perspiration  then  occurs,  and  this  evaporates.  Whenever 
there  is  evaporation,  there  is  a  loss  of  heat.  Thus,  you 
see,  perspiration  cools  off  the  body  and  prevents  the 
temperature  from  rising. 

On  a  cold  day  the  body  naturally  loses  more  heat  to 
its  surroundings  than  in  warm  weather,  but  our  tem- 
perature apparatus  meets  this  condition  perfectly.  The 
'capillaries  in  the  skin  contract  (that  is,  become  smaller), 
less  blood  comes  to  the  surface,  perspiration  is  checked, 
and  the  body's  temperature  remains  unchanged. 

People  in  cold  countries  require  more  heat-producing 
food  than  do  those  who  live  in  warmer  climates.  Those 
who  do  a  great  amount  of  muscular  work  or  who  exer- 
cise, need  more  food  than  people  who  live  quiet  or 
indolent  lives. 

In  studying  about  food  for  the  body  we  must  keep 
clearly  in  mind  that  we  need  food  for  — 

i.  Growth. 

The  uses  of  2.  Repair. 

food  3.  Work. 

4.  Heat. 


FOOD   AND   DIGESTION  33 

KINDS   OF   FOOD 

We  eat  a  great  variety  of  things,  but  they  may  all 
be  classified  in  a  few  groups  called  food  principles. 
These  are : 

1.  Proteids. 

2.  Starch  and  sugar. 

3.  Fats  and  oils. 

4.  Mineral  salts. 

5.  Water. 

All  foods  are  either  organic  or  inorganic.  The  first 
three  groups  of  food  principles  comprise  the  organic 
foods.  Inorganic  foods  include  water  and 
mineral  salts.  These  are  as  necessary  to 
the  body  as  oil  is  to  the  locomotive  or  any  inorganic 

J     foods 

other  machine. 

The  organic  foods  may  be  classed  under  two  heads : 

1.  Carbon  Foods.     Sugar  and  starch  of  various  kinds, 
and  fats  and  oils  are  the  carbon  foods.     They  are  used 
for  heat  and  work. 

2.  Nitrogen  Foods.     Lean  meats  and  eggs  are  exam- 
ples of  proteid  or  nitrogen  foods.     These  foods  are  used 
for  growth  and  repair. 

The  sugar  on  our  tables  is  made  either  from  sugar- 
cane or  from  the  beet.       Brown  sugar   is   cane   sugar 
which  has  not  been  put  through  the  process  sugars  and 
of   refining.       Molasses   comes   from   brown  starches 
sugar  during  the  refining.      Maple  sugar  comes  from 
the   sap   of  the  maple  tree.       Milk  sugar  comes  from 
milk.     Fruits  and  vegetables  contain  sugar  in  greater 
or  less  amounts. 

Honey  is  a   natural   sirup  collected  from  flowers  by 

\ 


34 


GENERAL   PHYSIOLOGY 


the  bees.  Most  of  the  table  sirups  are  manufactured 
from  starch.  Starch  and  sugar  are  much  alike.  In 
the  body  starch  is  always  changed  to  sugar  before  it  is 
absorbed.  Starch  is  also  changed  to  sugar  in  fruits 
when  they  ripen. 

Starch  is  found  in  most  of  our  vegetable  foods.  Tapi- 
oca and  arrowroot  contain  much  of  it.  Peas  and  beans 
contain  only  a  little.  Potatoes  are  largely  composed  of 
starch.  Sweet  potatoes  contain  more  sugar  and  less 
starch  than  white  potatoes,  but  of  the  two  the  sweet 


3     °           .0            O          a 

O       O   ".        o 

o  0       O 

o               «0.      o 

°         o'   «     •       «      .' 

O0    °   O  0       °° 

.  °  *  ° 

*           °          °   °  no 

00°     ' 

0° 

o                    °       •   ° 

••     o 

o 

^  O      •    *             o 

»        O            .     • 

o   •  gS^        c 

)     ° 

00               „          '              O             ° 

o     o 

<•>      °     «'  o 

•  .                  O  o 
0    '          *•  °  ° 

o         •  . 

0           ° 

MlLK. 


id 


MILK. 


CREAM. 

;.  2i.  — F~AT  GI.OISUI.K.S  IN  MILK  AND  CRKAM. 


FOOD   AND   DIGESTION 


35 


potato  is  the  more  nutritious.  Flour,  and  consequently 
bread,  and  the  cereals  contain  much  starch.  It  is  found 
also  in  fruits. 

Fats  and  oils  are  the  same  substances,  varying  only 
in  form  —  fats  are  solid,  oils  are  liquid.     They  are  found 
in  both  animal   and  vegetable  foods.      Milk  Fats  and 
contains  fat  in  the  form  of  cream  (butter  fat)  oils 
(Fig.  21).     Many  nuts  contain  fat.     The  most  common 
animal  fats  and  oils  are  butter,  cream,  and  the  fats  of 
beef,  mutton,  pork,  and  fish.     The  yolk  of  eggs  is  rich 
in  oil.    Important  vegetable  oils  are  olive  oil,  cotton-seed 
oil,  and  the  oil  of  nuts. 

About  one  fifth  of  the  weight  of  the  body  consists  of 
fat.  But  it  is  a  mistake  to  think  that  very  much  of  this 
comes  directly  from  the  fat  of  foods.  The  fat  of  the 
body  is  derived  mainly  from  other  forms  of  food,  which 
make  fat  when  eaten  and  taken  up  by  the  cells,  or 
assimilated.  Most  of  the  fat  that  is  eaten  is  at  once  oxi- 
dized, and  it  supplies  a  large  part  of  the  heat  of  the  body. 

The  principal  nitrogen   foods  are    lean    meat,   some 
kinds  of  fish,  eggs,  milk,  cheese,  peas,  beans,   Nitrogen 
and  cereals.  foods 

These  foods  all  contain  a  substance  called  protcid. 
The  white  of  egg,  called  albu- 
men, is  a  proteid.  Milk  con- 
tains a  proteid  called  casein, 
from  which  cheese  is  made. 
Lean  meat  contains  about 
twenty  per  cent  of  proteid, 
which  is  here  called  niyosin. 
Peas,  beans,  and  lentils  contain 
much  proteid,  but  not  so  much 


St 


Fir,.  22.  —  A  GRAIN  OF  WHEAT. 

Analyzed  to  show  starch  and 

gluten. 


GENERAL   PHYSIOLOGY 


as  meat.  The  proteid  in  flour  is  gluten.  All  cereals 
contain  proteid.  (Fig.  22.)  Proteids  are  necessary  for 
growth  and  repair. 

Milk  contains  all  of  the  food  principles  necessary  for 
life.  But  as  about  eighty-seven  per  cent  of  it  is  water, 
an  adult  cannot  support  life  on  milk  alone,  for  an  im- 
mense quantity  would  be  needed  to  give  him  sufficient 
proteid,  sugar,  and  fat  (Fig.  23). 


Total  solids 


n 

Water  Su^'.ar  Fat  Casein    AsL 

Fie.  23.  — TIIK  PROPORTION  OF  WATER  AND  SOLIDS  IN  MILK. 

Salts,  including  the  lime  salts,  are  needed  for  many 
purposes  in  the  body,  but  particularly  for  bone  building. 
Salts  and  Our  ordinary  foods  contain  enough  of  these 
water  mineral  substances  so  that  we  need  not  es- 

pecially provide  them.  There  is,  however,  one  excep- 
tion to  this.  We  do  need  to  provide  ordinary  table 
salt.  Animals,  like  cattle  and  deer,  visit  salt  marshes 
or  deer  licks  to  get  salt.  These  deer  licks  are  simply 
earths  which  have  in  them  deposits  of  salt. 

Water  makes  up  about  two  thirds  of  the  body.  The 
blood  is  about  four  fifths  water,  the  muscles  are  about 


FOOD   AND    DIGESTION  37 

three  fourths  water,  and  the  secretions  are  all  largely 
composed  of  water.  A  grown  person  needs  two  or 
three  quarts  of  water  every  day,  but  much  of  this  may 
be  taken  with  liquid  foods. 

Wine,  beer,  soda  water,  and  all  such  drinks  satisfy 
the  thirst  only  because  of  the  water  they  contain,  and 
none  of  them  can  take  the  place  of  water.  Iced 
water  or  other  very  cold  drinks,  when  taken  in  large 
amounts,  interfere  with  digestion  and  are  injurious. 

Tea  and  coffee  are  not  foods,  except  for  the  milk  and 
sugar  that  may  be  used  with  them.  They  are  used  partly 
because  of  their  pleasant  taste,  but  mostly  because  they 
are  stimulants. 

Food  flavors  do  not  ordinarily  contain  anything  nourish- 
ing to  the  body.  They  are  desirable  because 

Food  flavors 
they  make  food  more  appetizing  to  us.    Things 

which  are  appetizing  are  always  more  easily  digested. 

Common  flavors  are  pepper,  mustard,  cinnamon, 
cloves,  allspice,  vanilla,  lemon,  and  nutmeg.  Chocolate 
furnishes  both  a  flavor  and  a  real  food. 

We  may  now  review  what  has  been  said  about  the 
food  needed  by  man.  Review  of 

1.  We  need  food  for  growth,  repair,  work,  foods 
and  heat. 

2.  We    need    proteid    for   growth   and    repair.     The 
proteids    in     food    are    albumen,    myosin,    gluten,    and 
casein.     All  proteid  foods  contain  nitrogen. 

3.  We  need  starch    for   heat    and  work.     Starch  is 
found  chiefly  in  vegetables  and  grains. 

4.  We  need  sugar  for  heat  and  work.      Examples  of 
sugar  are  cane  sugar,  beet  sugar,  fruit  or  grape  sugar, 
and  milk  sugar. 

215167 


38  GENERAL   PHYSIOLOGY 

5.  We  need  fats  and  oils.  These  are  the  chief  fuel 
foods,  used  for  heat  and  work. 

Starch,  sugar,  fats,  and  oils  are  carbon  foods. 
•  6.    We  need  water  and  salts.      These  are  inorganic 
foods.     Salts  are  needed  for  bone  building. 

DIGESTION 

Before  food  can  be  absorbed  by  the  blood  and  assimi- 
lated by  the  cells  of  the  body,  it  must  pass  through 
The  mean-  certain  changes  called  digestion.  During  this 
ing  of  diges-  process  the  f  ood  is  liquefied.  The  whole  ob- 
ject of  digestion  is  to  change  the  form  of  food 
so  that  it  may  be  absorbed  and  assimilated.  Some  of 
these  changes  occur  in  the  mouth,  some  in  the  stomach, 
and  some  in  the  intestines. 

Starches  have  to  be  changed  to  sugars.  Part  of  this 
Changes  change  takes  place  in  the  mouth  by  means 

during  diges-  of  the  saliva-  The  rest  of  it  occurs  in  the 
tion  small  intestine.  Proteid  foods,  such  as  lean 

meat  and  the  white  of  eggs,  have  to  be  changed  into  a 
new  form  called  peptones.  This  change  of  proteids  to 
peptones  occurs  in  the  stomach  and  small  intestine. 
Proteids  cannot  pass  through  the  thin  walls  of  the 
capillaries  to  reach  the  cells,  but  peptones  can  do  so. 

Fats  are  not  so  greatly  changed  by  digestion  as  other 
forms  of  foods.  But  before  they  can  be  absorbed  they 
have  to  be  emulsified ;  that  is,  the  fat  globules  are  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  (Fig.  21).  If  you  shake  up  raw 
egg  albumen  with  olive  oil,  it  forms  an  emulsion.  Fats 
are  emulsified  in  the  small  intestine. 

Most  kinds  of  sugar  do  not  have  to  be  changed  by 
digestion,  but  are  absorbed  at  once  by  the  blood. 


FOOD   AND    DIGESTION 


39 


The  principal  food  changes  which  occur  during  diges- 
tion are  these : 

1.  Mastication,  or  grinding  in  the  mouth. 

2.  Change  of  proteids  to  peptones  in  the  stomach 

and  in  the  small  intestine. 

3.  Change  of  starch   to  sugar  in  the  mouth  and 

small  intestine. 

4.  Em  unification  of  fats  in  the  small  intestine. 

Mastication  and  the  emulsification  of  fats  are  what  we 
call  mechanical  changes.  All  the  other  changes  are 
chemical  changes.  New  substances  are  formed. 

These  chemical  changes  occur  because  of  the  action 
of  certain    digestive    glands  which    secrete    substances 
called    digestive   juices.      The    secretions    of  Thediges- 
digestive  glands  are  manufactured  by  certain  tive  Juices 
glands  from  the  blood  which  passes  through  them. 

Saliva  is  secreted  by  the  salivary  glands,  which  are 
located  under  the  tongue,  under  the  lower  jaw,  and  in 
front  of  and  below  the 
ears  (Fig.  24).  This  se- 
cretion is  carried  to  the 
mouth  by  means  of  small 
ducts.  It  changes  starch 
to  sugar. 

Pepsin  and  hydrochloric 
acid  are  secreted  by  thou- 
sands of  little  tube-like 
glands  in  the  walls  of  the 
stomach.  They  change 

proteids  to  peptones. 

r  FIG.  24.  —  THE  SALIVARY  GLANDS 

The  pancreas   secretes  AND  DUCTS. 


40  GENERAL   PHYSIOLOGY 

pancreatic  juice.  This  is  carried  by  a  duct  to  the  small 
intestine.  This  juice  brings  about  many  changes,  in- 
cluding : 

1.  The  change  of  starch  to  sugar. 

2.  The  change  of  proteids  to  peptones. 

3.  The  emulsification  of  fat. 

The  liver  secretes  bile.    This  is  useful  in  several  ways  : 

1.  It  aids  in  the  absorption  of  fat. 

2.  It    helps  to  prevent   fermentation   of   foods    in 

the  intestines. 

3.  It  stimulates  action  of  the  bowels. 

In  reviewing  the  story  pf  food  and  its  uses  and  how 
the  body  does  its  work,  we  cannot  do  better  than  repeat 
the  words  of  a  great  English  physiologist  and  teacher, 
Professor  Michael  Foster. 

THE   WHOLE   STORY    SHORTLY   TOLD 

"  Now  you  ought  to  be  able  to  understand  how  it  is  that 
we  live  on  the  food  we  eat. 

"  Food,  inasmuch  as  it  can  be  burned,  is  a  source  of 
power.  In  burning  it  gives  forth  heat,  and  heat  is  power. 
If  we  so  pleased,  we  might  burn  in  a  furnace  the  things 
which  we  eat  as  food,  and  with  them  drive  a  locomotive 
or  work  a  mill ;  if  we  so  pleased,  we  might  convert  them 
into  gunpowder,  and  with  them  fire  cannon  or  blast 
rocks.  Instead  of  doing  so,  we  burn  them  in  our  own 
bodies,  and  use  their  power  in  ourselves. 

"  Food  passing  into  the  alimentary  canal  is  there  di- 
gested ;  the  nourishing  food-stuffs  are,  with  very  little 


FOOD    AND    DIGESTION  41 

change,  dissolved  out  from  the  refuse ;  they  pass  into 
and  become  part  and  parcel  of  the  blood. 

"  The  blood,  driven  by  the  unresting  stroke  of  the 
heart's  pump,  courses  throughout  the  whole  body,  and  in 
the  narrow  capillaries  bathes  every  smallest  bit  of  almost 
every  part.  Kept  continually  rich  in  combustible  material 
by  frequent  supplies  of  food,  the  blood  as  well,  at  every 
round,  sucks  up  oxygen  from  the  air  of  the  lungs  ;  and 
thus  arterial  blood  is  ever  carrying  to  all  parts  of  the 
body  —  to  muscle,  brain,  bone,  nerve,  skin,  and  gland  — 
stuff  to  burn  and  oxygen  to  burn  it  with. 

"  Everywhere  oxidation,  burning,  is  going  on,  in  some 
spots  or  at  some  times  fiercely,  in  other  spots  or  at  other 
times  faintly,  changing  the  arterial  blood  rich  in  oxygen 
to  venous  blood  poor  in  oxygen.  From  most  places 
where  oxidation  is  going  on,  the  venous  blood  goes  away 
hotter  than  the  arterial  which  came ;  and  all  the  hot 
blood  mingling  together  and  rushing  over  the  whole 
body  keeps  the  whole  body  warm.  Sweeping  as  it  con- 
tinually does  through  innumerable  little  furnaces,  the 
blood  must  needs  be  warm.  This  is  why  we  are  warm. 

"  But  from  some  places,  as  from  the  skin,  the  venous 
blood  goes  away  cooler  than  the  arterial  which  came, 
because  while  journeying  through  the  capillaries  of  the 
skin  it  has  given  up  much  of  its  heat  to  whatever  is 
touching  the  skin,  and  has  also  lost  much  heat  in  turn- 
ing liquid  perspiration  into  vapor.  This  is  why,  so  long 
as  we  are  in  health,  we  never  get  hotter  than  a  certain 
degree  of  temperature,  the  so-called  blood-heat,  98°  Fahr. 

"  Everywhere  oxidation  is  going  on,  oxidation  either  of 
the  blood  itself  or  of  the  structures  which  it  bathes,  and 
whose  losses  it  has  to  make  good.  Everywhere  change 


42  GENERAL  PHYSIOLOGY 

is  going  on.  Little  by  little,  bit  by  bit,  every  part  of  the 
body,  here  quickly,  there  slowly,  is  continually  molder- 
ing  away  and  is  continually  being  made  anew  by  the 
blood  —  made  anew  according  to  its  own  nature.  Though 
it  is  the  same  blood  which  is  rushing  through  all  the 
capillaries,  it  makes  different  things  in  different  parts. 
In  the  muscle  it  makes  muscle ;  in  the  nerve,  nerve ;  in 
the  bone,  bone ;  in  the  glands,  juice.  Though  it  is  the 
same  blood,  it  gives  different  qualities  to  different  parts  : 
out  of  it  one  gland  makes  saliva,  another  gastric  juice; 
out  of  it  the  bone  gets  strength,  the  brain  power  to  feel, 
the  muscle  power  to  contract. 

"  When  the  biceps  muscle  contracts  and  raises  the  arm, 
it  does  work.  The  power  to  do  that  work,  the  muscle 
got  from  the  blood,  and  the  blood  from  the  food.  All 
the  work  of  which  we  are  capable  comes,  then,  from  our 
food,  from  the  oxidation  of  our  food,  just  as  the  power 
of  the  steam-engine  comes  from  the  oxidation  of  its  fuel. 
But  you  know  that  in  the  steam-engine  only  a  very 
small  part  of  the  power,  or  energy,  as  it  is  called,  of  the 
fuel  goes  to  move  the  wheel.  By  far  the  greater  part  is 
lost  in  heat.  So  it  is  with  our  bodies :  all  the  force  we 
can  exert  with  our  bodies  is  but  a  small  part  of  the  power 
of  our  food ;  all  the  rest  goes  to  keep  us  warm. 

"  Visiting  all  parts  of  the  body,  rebuilding  and  refresh- 
ing every  spot  it  touches,  the  blood  current  also  carries 
away  from  each  organ  the  waste  matters  of  which  that 
organ  has  no  longer  any  use.  Just  as  each  part  or  organ 
has  different  properties  and  different  work,  so  also  is  the 
waste  of  each  not  exactly  the  same,  though  all  are  alike 
inasmuch  as  they  are  all  the  results  of  oxidation.  The 
waste  of  the  muscle  is  not  exactly  the  same  as  the  waste 


FOOD   AND   DIGESTION  43 

of  the  brain  or  of  the  liver.  Possibly  (in  some  cases)  the 
waste  things  which  the  blood  bears  from  one  organ  may 
be  useful  to  another,  and  so  be  made  to  do  double  work, 
just  as  the  tar  which  the  gasworks  throw  away  makes 
the  fortune  of  the  color  manufacturer. 

"  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  waste  products  of  all  parts, 
traveling  hither  and  thither  in  the  body,  come  at  last  to 
be  brought  down  to  very  simple  things,  with  all  their 
virtue  gone  out  of  them,  with  all,  or  all  but  all,  their 
power  of  burning  lost,  fit  for  nothing  but  to  be  cast  away, 
come  at  last  to  be  urea  or  ammonia,  carbonic  acid,  and 
salts.  In  this  shape,  the  food,  after  a  longer  or  shorter 
sojourn  in  the  body,  having  done  its  work,  having  built 
up  this  or  that  part,  having  helped  the  muscle  to  contract 
or  the  liver  to  secrete,  having  by  its  burning  given  rise 
to  work  or  to  heat,  goes  back  powerless  to  the  earth  and 
air  from  which  it  came.  And  so  the  tale  is  told." 


CHAPTER   VI 
THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM 

WHERE  any  large  group  of  men  is  employed,  some 
one  must  direct  their  work.  We  often  see  numbers  of 
The  need  of  ignorant  laborers  repairing  railroad  or  street 
direction  and  car  tracks.  Such  men  are  usually  unable  to 
do  important  work  of  any  sort  alone.  But 
the  foreman  in  charge  of  these  laborers  so  directs  their 
efforts  that  most  useful  and  often  astonishing  results  are 
accomplished.  The  great  pyramids  of  Egypt  were  built 
by  ignorant  slaves  of  ancient  times,  but  their  labor  was 
directed  and  made  useful  by  some  superior  intellect. 

In  much  the  same  way  the  different  organs  of  the 
body,  each  doing  its  separate  kind  of  work,  are  governed 
and  directed  by  the  nervous  system.  If  it  were  not  for 
this  superintendent  whose  duty  it  is  to  direct  and  con- 
trol the  work  of  the  body,  all  would  be  confusion.  The 
various  parts,  such  as  the  muscles,  glands,  eyes,  and 
ears,  must  receive  directions  as  to  how  and  when  to  act. 
Suppose,  for  instance,  the  five  hundred  muscles  of  the 
body  were  not  made  to  act  in  harmony  with  each  other. 
Each  one  might  work  at  a  different  time  and  in  a  dif- 
ferent manner.  No  useful  action  could  then  take  place. 

When  a  man  has  an  epileptic  convulsion  or,  in  com- 
mon language,  a  fit,  the  muscles  are  in  a  spasm.  The 
man  falls  down  ;  the  body  trembles  ;  the  arms,  legs,  and 

44 


THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM  45 

head  jerk  about,  and  all  muscular  control  is  lost.  For 
the  time  being  the  nervous  system  has  entirely  lost  its 
control  of  the  muscles,  and  these  and  some  other  organs 
act  independently  of  each  other  and  without  any  useful 
purpose.  But  ordinarily  all  the  parts  of  this  complex 
human  machine  work  together  in  perfect  harmony. 

The  controlling  part  of  the  body  is  found  in  the  brain 
and  spinal  cord.     These  are  the  coordinating  Th         di 
organs   of    the   body.     They    are   the    parts  nating 
which  make  all  actions  harmonious  and  use-  organi 
ful.     They  direct  the  other  organs  as  to  the  amount  of 
work  to  be  done,  and  the  time  to  do  it. 

We  have  already  learned  that  the  skull  encloses  the 
most  important  part  of  the  nervous  system,  the  brain 

(page  7).     We  have  learned  also  something 

,  &    The  brain 
of  the  work  done  by  the  motor  cells  and  the 

sensory  cells  in  the  brain  (page  15).  The  brain  consists 
of  two  chief  parts,  the  cerebrum  and  the  cerebellum,  and 
a  bulb-like  portion,  the  medulla,  which  joins  the  spinal 
cord  (Figs.  25  and  26). 

The  cerebrum  is  the  largest  part  of  the  brain.  Con- 
sciousness arises  in  the  cerebrum.  All  voluntary  action 
—  action  that  we  will  to  do  —  is  controlled  in  this  part. 
We  tJiink  with  the  cerebrum.  Here  are  located  many 
different  centers  which  direct  various  kinds  of  work  or 
functions,  such  as  the  center  for  sight,  hearing,  touch, 
motion,  sensation,  thought,  smell,  and  taste. 

The  cerebellum  controls  many  complicated  actions. 
It  has  much  influence  on  muscular  action.  Equilibrium, 
or  balance,  is  under  the  control  of  this  part  of  the  brain. 
A  pigeon  with  its  cerebellum  removed  does  not  die,  but 
it  cannot  keep  its  balance. 


46 


GENERAL   PHYSIOLOGY 


The  spinal  cord  acts  in  two  ways:  i.  It  connects 
The  spinal  the  nerves  of  the  trunk,  arms,  and  legs  with 
001-3  the  brain.  2.  It  sometimes  acts  independ- 

ently of  the  brain. 


FIG.  25.— A  SECTION  OF  THE  HEAD. 

Showing  brain,  cord,  and  brain  coverings,  enclosed  by  the  skull; 
also  bones  of  the  nose. 

When  the  spinal  cord  acts  independently,  we  have 
what  is  called1  a  reflex  action.     Such  reflex  actions  occur 

without  COIl-  Reflex  ac- 


Thought 


sciousness 


turns 


Spinol 

Bulb  Controls 
Heart 
Blooc/veuth 
Swallowing 


.Cerebellum, 
•ntro/s  Balance 
5  erne 


Spitial  Cord 

-T—      -     -  ff 

FlG.    26. —  DIAGRAM   OF  THK   BRAIN. 


we  do  not  will  to  do 
them.  The  cord  con- 
trols reflex  actions  as 
if  it  were  a  sort  of 
unconscious  brain.  A 
chicken  may  run  about 
for  a  while  after  its 
head  has  been  cut  off. 


THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM  47 

A  frog  with  its  brain  destroyed  will  try  to  remove  a  drop 
of  acid  placed  on  its  skin.  Such  actions  are  under  the 
control  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  the  will  has,  of  course, 
nothing  to  do  with  them.  Many  of  the  lowest  forms 
of  animals  perform  all  their  actions  reflexly. 

In  the  case  of  some  kinds  of  reflex  actions,  the  brain 
later  becomes  conscious  of  them.  The  hand  may  pull 
away  from  a  burn  or  pin  prick  before  the  brain  knows 
anything  about  the  injury,  but  while  the  action  is  taking 
place,  the  message  travels  up  the  spinal  cord  to  the 
brain.  (See  Fig.  8,  page  n.)  The  cord  thus  protects 
the  body  and  saves  the  brain  a  great  deal  of  work.  It 
sends  a  message  by  motor  nerves  to  the  muscles,  and 
the  danger  is  averted  before  the  message  over  the 
sensory  nerves  has  reached  the  brain. 

The  cord  performs(  many  useful  acts  for  us  which 
do  not  originate  in  the  brain  and  of  which  we  are  some- 
times conscious  and  at  other  times  quite  unconscious. 

The  upper  part  of  the  spinal  cord  joins  the  bulb  or 
medulla.      The    medulla   connects   the   cord    with   the 
higher  parts  of  the  brain.     There  are  several  The  work 
nerve  centers  in  the  medulla  which  send  or-  of  the  me- 
ders  to  very  important  organs.     Messages  are 
sent  from  these  centers  to  the  organs  of  breathing,  to 
the  gullet,  to  the  heart,  and  to  the  muscles  in  artery 
walls  which  regulate  the  size  of  the  arteries.    Breathing, 
swallowing,  the  beating  of  the  heart,  and  the  regulation 
of  the  blood  supply  are  the  most  important  functions  of 
the  body.     All  of  these  are  reflex  actions  which  go  on 
independently  of  our  wills  or  consciousness. 

Sometimes  the  spinal  cord  is  badly  injured.  In  such 
cases  no  messages  can  be  sent  from  the  brain  to  any 


48  GENERAL   PHYSIOLOGY 

organs  below  the  point  of  injury  in  the  cord.     Likewise, 
no  messages  can  reach  the  brain  which  start 

The  effect  of    , 

injury  to        below  the  injured  part  of  the  cord.     In  such 

cord  and  cases  the  foot  might  be  burned  and  the  reflex 
brain 

action  of  the  cord  would  result  in  pulling  the 

foot  away  from  the  fire,  but  the  brain  would  know 
nothing  about  it.  There  would  be  no  pain  or  other 
feeling  in  the  parts  below  the  injury  in  the  cord. 

If  a  serious  injury  occurs  in  certain  parts  of  the  brain 
which  control  muscles,  then  a  burn  in  the  hand  or  foot 
might  be  felt  as  pain,  but  the  brain  would  be  unable  to 
send  any  messages  to  the  muscles  to  draw  the  burned 
part  away.  When  such  injuries  occur  to  either  the 
brain  or  the  cord,  we  call  the  condition  paralysis.1 

Injury  to  the  medulla,  if  at  all  serious,  results  in 
death,  because  the  most  important  functions  of  the 
body  are  controlled  from  this  part.  Serious  injury  to 
the  upper  parts  of  the  brain  or  the  cord  do  not  directly 
cause  death,  even  though  consciousness  is  lost  and 
paralysis  occurs. 

Lying  in  front  and  on  each  side  of  the  spinal  column 

are   strings    of    nerve    fibers 2   and    bundles    of    nerve 

cells.       These   compose   what   is   called   the 

The   sympa- 
thetic sys-     sympathetic    nerrous    system.      This    system 

is  in  close  connection  with  the  central  nerv- 
ous system  (brain,  cord,  and  connecting  nerves)  by 
means  of  fibers  which  pass  from  it  to  the  spinal  cord. 

1  Apoplezy  is  paralysis  caused  by  a  blood  vessel  breaking  in  the 
brain  and  forming  a  clot  of  blood  which  presses  on  (lie  cells  that 
control  muscular  action.  When  this  happens,  these  cells  cannot 
perform  their  duty,  which  is  to  send  messages  to  the  muscles. 

-  The  fibers  are  like  very  minute  threads  or  wires,  which,  bound 
together,  make  the  nerve  (Figs.  27  and  28). 


THE   NERVOUS    SYSTEM 


49 


The  nerves  from  the  sympathetic  system  pass  mostly 
to  the  muscles  over  which  we  have  no  conscious 
control.  They  go  to  the  internal  organs  of  the 
chest  and  the  abdomen,  and  to  the  walls  of  blood  ves- 
sels. The  beating  of  the  heart  is  partially  under  the 
control  of  this  system.  To  a  large  extent  breathing  also 
is  controlled  in  this  way.  Muscle  action  in  the  intestines 
and  the  arteries,  and  the  secretion  of  glands  come  under 
the  control  of  the  sympathetic  nervous  system. 

Those  important  organs  which  directly  control  life  — 
the  heart,  lungs,  and  blood  vessels  —  are  fortunately  not 
under  the  control  of  our  wills,  but  are  gov- 

.       .       The  control 

erned  by  the  medulla  and  the  sympathetic  Of  the  most 
system.     These  organs  are  practically  auto-  important 

functions 

mat ic.    You  may  deliberately  hold  your  breath 

for  a  long  time,  but  even  if  consciousness  should  be  lost 

you  would  not  die,  because 

automatic  breathing  would 

at  once  begin.     In  some 

animals,  like  the  frog  for 

example,    breathing    and 

the    heart   beat  will    con- 
tinue   for    several    hours 

after  the  brain  itself  has 

been  removed. 

Every  part  of  the  body 

is  connected  with  the  brain 

The  nerves  :  anc^  Spinal  cord 
by  means  of 
nerves.  Mus- 
cles pull 


Fie.  27.  —  A  NERVE 
CELL. 


Merve 
Fie.  28.- 
A  XERVE. 

Fig.  27  shows  a  nerve   fiber  starting 
from  the  cell,  and   Fig.  28  shows  fibers 
bones,  glands  Secrete,  pain    united  to  form  a  nerve. 


the  connect- 
ing parts  of 

the  nervous 

system 


on 


GENERAL   PHYSIOLOGY 


is  felt,  all  because  of  this 
communication  between 
every  organ  in  the  body 
and  the  brain  and  cord. 
(See  Figs.  27  and  28.) 

Two  cities  have,  we  will 
say,  batteries  and  telegraph 
instruments,  and  they  wish 
to  communicate  with  each 
other.  They  can  do  so 
only  by  means  of  wires. 
So  somebody  connects  by 
wire  the  batteries  and  in- 
struments of  one  city  with 
those  of  the  other,  and 
messages  pass  back  and 
forth  very  easily.  Our 
nerves  correspond  to  the 
telegraph  wires,  our  brain 
cells  to  the  batteries,  and 
the  ivill  power  ol  our  minds 
to  the  telegraph  operator. 
If  a  wire  is  cut,  no  message 
can  be  sent  past  the  point 
where  the  break  occurs. 
If  a  nerve  is  cut,  the  same 

FIG.  29.  —  THK  NKRVOIS  SVSTI.M.      thing   is    true.       If   the   bat- 
Notice  UK-  brain,  the  spinal  cord,    teries     are    destroyed,    no 

and   the   general    arrangement   of  the     messagccan  be  CVCH  Started 
nerves. 

on  the  wires.     If  the  cells 

from  which  the  nerve  starts  are  destroyed,  no  message 
can  be  started  along  the  nerves. 


THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM  5! 

In  one  important  particular,  however,  the  nervous 
system  differs  greatly  from  the  telegraph  system.  We 
have  learned  that  reflex  actions  may  occur  without  the 
help  of  the  upper  parts  of  the  brain.  This  is  much 
the  same  as  if  certain  messages  could  be  sent  along  the 
wires  when  the  telegraph  operators  were  away  or 
asleep. 

In  the  brain,  nerve  fibers  connect  all  its  centers,  and 
join  them  with  the  spinal  cord.  In  the  spinal  cord, 
nerve  fibers  pass  up  and  dovyn,  connecting  all  its  parts. 
Nerve  fibers  thus  not  only  connect  all  organs  with  the 
brain  or  cord,  but  also  bring  each  part  of  the  brain  and 
cord  into  communication  with  every  other  part. 

At  birth  there  are  as  many  brain  cells  as  there  will 
ever  be,  but  the  nerve  fibers  connecting  these  . 

The  educa- 

cells  may  be  developed  until  a  person  is  at  tion  of  the 
least  sixty  years  of  age.     Education  consists 
largely  in   developing   these  connecting    fibers  of  the 
brain.     Education  may  be  either  good  or  bad  in  its  gen- 
eral nature. 

By  repetition  we  learn  to  do  things  very  easily.  At 
last  we  succeed  in  doing  many  things  almost  without 
thought,  that  is,  automatically.  It  is  in  this  The  basis  of 
way,  by  automatic  repetition,  that  one  learns  habit 
to  ride  a  bicycle,  or  play  an  instrument,  or  run  an 
automobile. 

By  such  repetition  of  acts  we  not  only  gain  useful 
habits,  but  we  may  as  easily  acquire  bad  ones.  Habits 
of  any  kind  always  tend  to  become  fixed,  until  HOW  habits 
they  occur  almost  unconsciously.  It  is  easy  become  fixed 
to  say  that  we  can  break  away  from  a  bad  habit  at  any 
time,  but  this  is  not  true.  Habits  of  all  kinds  have  a 


52  GENERAL   PHYSIOLOGY 

pliysical  basis  ;  that  is,  actual  changes  occur  in  the  nerve 
cells  and  fibers  which  make  certain  actions  easy.  It  is 
much  the  same  as  when  we  make  travel  through  the 
snow  easy  by  digging  paths.  Beaten  paths  are  made  in 
the  brain  by  constant  repetition. 

Every  one  knows  that  if  a  boy  or  a  girl  forms  good 
habits,  he  or  she  will  seldom  make  serious  mistakes  later 
Good  and  in  life.  But  when  bad  habits  are  learned  and 
bad  habits  practiced  early  in  life,  it  is  only  by  the  greatest 
effort  that  a  strong  character  is  formed  in  later  life. 

Such  habits  as  smoking,  drinking,  drug  taking,  ordi- 
nary lack  of  self-control,  anger,  and  fault-finding  may 
all  be  explained  to  a  large  extent  by  early  and  continued 
practice.  A  confirmed  coffee  or  tea  drinker  forms  a 
habit.  His  nerve  cells  demand  a  stimulus,  and  thoughts 
and  actions  fail  to  do  their  best  unless  the  usual  habit  is 
followed. 

Bad  habits  of  all  kinds  sooner  or  later  wear  out  the 
nervous  machinery.  False  messages  are  received  by  the 
brain,  false  messages  are  sent  to  the  organs  by  the  brain, 
and  the  person  becomes  the  victim  of  Jiis  habits,  not  the 
master  of  them.  Drugs  which  dull  the  senses,  actions 
which  exhaust  the  brain  cells  —  all  such  things  tend  to 
make  us  less  useful  and  less  happy  in  the  world. 

Inasmuch  as  habits  are  to  stay  with  us  through  life, 
it  is  wise  to  form  those  that  will  be  useful  rather  than 
those  that  will  do  us  harm. 


CHAPTER   VII 
THE   LIVING  MACHINE 

WE  do  not  often  realize  that  the  human  body  is  a 
machine,  differing  from  other  machines  largely  in  the 
fact  that  it  is  living.  For  our  purpose  we  The  human 
must  study  the  body  simply  as  a  machine.  machme 
We  must  learn  how  it  does  its  work,  how  it  keeps 
in  repair,  and  what  puts  it  out  of  repair.  It  is  sur- 
prising that  this  most  wonderful  and  complex  of  all 
machines  is  the  one  about  which  most  people  usually 
know  very  little.  The  body  is  the  machine  which  more 
than  all  others  generally  receives  the  least  intelligent 
care. 

When  a  steam  engine  runs,  it  does  a  certain  amount 
of  work ;  energy  is  expended.      Energy  is  the  power  of 
doing  work.     Common  forms  of  energy  are  What  en- 
light,  heat,  motion,  and  electricity.      An  en-  eriyis 
gine  receives  its  energy  from  the  coal  it  burns.     The 
body  receives  its  energy  from  the   food  it  consumes. 

No  machine  can  create  or  destroy  energy.  All  it  can 
do  is  to  change  the  form  of  energy.  A  machine  is  an 
apparatus  which  can  change  one  kind  of  energy  into 
another.  The  locomotive  can  change  the  energy  in  the 
coal  into  heat  and  work,  and  the  living  machine  can 
change  the  energy  of  food  into  heat  and  work. 

In  the  engine  some  of  the  energy  is  spent  in  driving 
the  machine,  but  much  of  it  is  lost.  The  best  con- 

•    53 


54  GENERAL   PHYSIOLOGY 

structed  steam  engine  is,  after  all,  a  wasteful  sort  of 
The  loss  machine.  If  all  the  energy  in  the  coal  could 
and  waste  be  changed  to  heat,  and  this  heat  could  be 

iergy  converted  into  motion,  we  should  have  a  per- 
fect machine.  But  much  of  the  heat  is  lost  entirely. 
No  machine  is  able  to  change  the  energy  of  coal  into 
work  without  much  loss.  But  compared  with  other 
pieces  of  machinery,  the  living  body  is  the  most  eco- 
nomical machine  and  most  nearly  perfect  in  its  use  of 
energy. 

Because  the  engine  cannot  change  all  its  fuel  into 
energy,  it  gives  off  certain  waste  substances.  One  of 
these  is  carbon  dioxide ;  another  is  the  vapor  of  water. 
In  the  case  of  coal,  much  ash  is  left  which  represents 
mineral  matters  which  cannot  be  burned. 

The  body  or  living  machine  gives  off  waste  mate- 
rials just  as  the  engine  does.  This  is  the  reason  that 
a  badly  ventilated  room  becomes  charged  with  carbon 
dioxide  gas,  watery  vapor,  and  other  harmful  products. 
Certain  parts  of  the  food  leave  the  body  as  indigestible 
waste  substances,  much  like  the  ashes  of  a  locomotive ; 
and  other  w,aste  substances  leave  the  body  in  the  form 
of  perspiration. 

Every  sort  of  machine  wears  out  in  certain  parts 
and  must  constantly  receive  repairs.  The  living 
The  work  of  machine  very  largely  makes  its  own  re- 
repair  pairs,  though  of  course  it  does  wear  out  at 
last.  It  not  only  repairs  waste,  but  in  the  young  it 
grows  in  size  and  increases  in  weight,  so  long  as  a 
sufficient  amount  of  food  (fuel)  is  furnished.  So  you 
see  the  living  machine  builds  up  as  well  as  breaks 
down. 


THE   LIVING    MACHINE  55 

The    living  machine,  as  we   have  said,  is   the  most 

economical  of   all    machines.     Not  only  can 

...       The  body  is 

it  use  a  large  part  of  the  energy  received  in  the  most 
the  form  of  food  and  oxygen,  but  it  can  build  economical 

machine 

up  living  matter  from  the  food  furnished  it. 

If  the  body  is  to  do  its  work  in  the  best  possible  way, 
it  must,  of  course,  receive  the  right  amount  and  kinds  of 

food.     It  must  also  be  kept  in  good  working  , 

5    How  to  care 

order  in  all  its  parts.     No  one  would  expect  for  the 

the  best  work  from    a  machine  which  was  hum^n 

machine 

constantly  furnished  with  the  wrong  sort  of 
fuel,  which   was   neglected  and  abused,  or  which  was 
allowed  to  clog  up  with  waste  substances.     Yet  that  is 
just  what  people  often  demand  of  the  most  important  of 
all  machines  —  the  human  body. 

Most  of  us  could  greatly  improve  the  condition  of 
the  body  as  a  piece  of  machinery  if  we  only  knew  just 
how;  that  is,  if  we  were  good  human  machinists.  If  we 
could  learn  this  lesson  early  enough,  we  should  not  have 
to  make  so  many  unsatisfactory  repairs  later  in  life. 

We  are  to  study  in  PART  II  about  the  things  which 
interfere  with  the  proper  action  of  the  living  machine, 
and  how  this  machine  may  be  managed  so  as  to  give 
the  best  possible  work  with  the  least  waste  of  energy. 


PART    II 
HYGIENE 


§  I 

H*  <« 


o  5 

O  « 

K  - 

U  x 

tn  : 


w     ! 

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W       i 


CHAPTER   VIII 
THE  NATURAL  DEFENSES   OF  THE  BODY 

THE  body  is  provided  by  nature  with  means  for  ward- 
ing off  disease.    Some  people  have  little  power  The  natural 
of  this  sort  and  others  have  a  great  deal.    This  resistance  of 
is   only    another   way  of    saying   that   some 
people  "take  a  disease"  much  more  easily  than  others. 

One  may  be  well  protected  against  most  diseases  but 
be  very  susceptible  to  some  particular  disease.  For 
example,  many  persons  are  susceptible  to  consumption, 
and  it  seems  as  if  some  have  little  resistance  to  typhoid 
fever.  The  trouble  comes  not  so  much  because  one  is 
exposed  to  a  disease  as  because  one  naturally  has  little 
protection  against  it.  We  call  this  protection  our  natu- 
ral resistance. 

It  was  not  very  long  ago  when  people  thought  that 
all  diseases  were  caused  by  evil  spirits,  or  that  they  were 
sent  as  punishments  for  sins.  Now  we  know  that  most 
diseases  are  really  accidents  which  may  usually  be  pre- 
vented if  we  have  the  right  kind  of  knowledge.  This 
knowledge  consists  in  understanding  just  what  causes 
disease,  how  the  causes  may  be  avoided,  and  what  nature 
does  to  help  us  out.  When  we  become  sick  in  spite  of 
all  we  can  do  to  avoid  it,  then  we  wish  to  know  how  to 
get  well  in  the  best  and  quickest  way. 

Most  of  the  diseases  that  we  hear  about  are  caused  by 
certain  tiny  plants,  something  like  the  pollen  of  flowers. 

59 


6o 


HYGIENE 


We  call  these  plants  bacteria  or  germs.     They  must  be 

thought   of    as    an    army  of  invaders  which 
Bacteria 

possess   various    methods    of    attack.      The 

white  cells  of  the  blood  represent  the  resisting  army 

N  whose  duty  it  is  to  protect  the 

„       .  i  o    /  ,  ^ 

fi\  *  \  < }  f  S    body  from  the  attacks  of  the 

.-.     %  j.  '   bacteria     or     disease     germs. 

BACTERIA  OF  VARIOUS  KINDS.    There    often    occurs    in    our 

bodies  a  silent,  unseen  war- 
fare, which  is  as  interesting  when  understood  as  the 
noisy  warfare  of  nations.  The  military  methods  are, 
after  all,  not  so  very  unlike  in  the  two  cases. 

Let  us  see  what  some  of  the  defenses  of  the  body  are. 
In  the  blood  there  float,  as  we  know,  the  red 
and   white  blood   cells,   or  blood  corpuscles. 
When   disease  germs  get  into  the  body,  — 
through   a   cut    in    the    skin,  with    water    or 
food,    by    our    breathing  them    in    with 
dust,  or  in  some  other  way,  —  the  white 
blood  cells  usually  try  to  destroy  them. 
So  there  follows  a  battle  between  these 
soldiers    of    the    body    (the  white    cor- 
puscles)  and    the   attacking    army    (the 
bacteria). 

If  the  finger  festers  after  an  injury, 
the  pus  that  forms  there  is  largely  made 
up  of  these  white  blood  cells  which  have 
rushed  to  the  spot  to  destroy  the  bacteria. 
They  seem  quite  like  an  army  of  soldiers 
rushing  forward  to  the  point  of  attack 
to  defeat  and  kill  the  enemy.  In  this 
IN<;  BACH.KIA.  struggle  some  of  the  white  corpuscles 


White  cor- 
puscles are 
guards 
against 
bacteria 


THE   NATURAL   DEFENSES   OF   THE    BODY        6 1 

themselves  are  destroyed.     As  in  a  military  battle,  there 
is  loss  on  both  sides. 

Besides  this  attack  of  the  white  corpuscles  on  the 
bacteria,  there  are  other  and  very  different  ways  in 
which  nature  fights  against  disease.  When  Natural 
bacteria  get  into  the  body  and  begin  to  grow  medicine 
and  multiply  there,  they  often  form  poisons  which  affect 
the  body  just  as  seriously  as  if  poison  had  been  swal- 
lowed. What  we  ordinarily  speak  of  as  blood  poisoning 
is  of  this  nature.  The  blood  sometimes  develops  a 
substance  which  attacks  the  poison  produced  by  such 
bacteria,  and  makes  it  either  quite  harmless  or  at  least 
much  less  harmful.  Such  a  substance  might  be  regarded 
as  a  natural  medicine. 

Then  again,  the  blood  may  contain  substances  which 
weaken  the  bacteria  which  have  entered  the  body,  so 
that  the  white  blood  cells  can  destroy  them  other 
much  more  easily.  It  is  somewhat  as  if  an 
army  should  first  send  out  messengers  to  disease 
poison  the  water  supplies  of  the  enemy  before  attack- 
ing them.  In  both  cases  the  enemy  would,  of  course,  be 
weakened  and  more  easily  killed,  because  they  are  first 
reduced  in  strength  by  a  poison. 

There  are  many  other  means  which  nature  uses  to 
protect  the  body.  All  through  the  body  we  have  little 
nodules  known  as  lymph  glands.  Sometimes  they  can 
be  felt  in  the  neck,  especially  when  one  has  a  sore 
throat.  These  glands  act  somewhat  like  filters,  and 
bacteria  and  even  coal  dust,  iron  dust,  and  the  like  are 
often  arrested  here. 

Sometimes  bacteria  are  walled  in  and  shut  off  so  that 
they  cannot  spread  to  other  parts  of  the  body,  and 


62  HYGIENE 

occasionally  this  wall  becomes  hardened  with  deposits 
of  lime.  This  is  common  in  the  lungs,  and  the  germs  of. 
tuberculosis1  (consumption)  are  in  this  way  kept  from 
spreading. 

When  the  appendix  breaks  or  ruptures,  as  it  some- 
times does,  then  quickly  bands  and  partitions  (adhesions) 
are  formed,  and  the  part  where  the  trouble  occurs  is 
walled  off  from  the  rest  of  the  body  cavity  ;  thus  the 
disease  is  kept  within  narrow  bounds.  If  this  does  not 
occur  as  it  should,  the  bacteria  which  are  causing  the 
attack  of  appendicitis  spread  to  all  parts  of  the  abdo- 
men, and  death  may  result.  It  seems  very  wonderful 
that  nature  can  so  successfully  protect  our  bodies  in 
ways  that  appear  almost  conscious. 

The  nose  is  lined  with  many  hairs,  as  you  know,  but 
it  has  not  occurred  to  you  perhaps  that  these  serve  as  a 
sort  of  sieve  and  keep  _  , 

Defenses  in 

dust  and  bacteria  from  the  nose  and 
entering   the    lungs   in   throat 
breathing.     The  little  tubes  which 

carry  air  to  the  lungs  (bronchial 
CELLS  FROM  *HK  HRON-    tubes)  a)so  are  Hned   with    minutc 

CHIAL       TUBES,       SHOWING  . 

CILIA,  hair-like  bodies  which  are  m  con- 

stant motion.    These  little  cilia,  or 

hairs,  sweep  foreign  particles  back  toward  the  throat, 
where  they  may  be  disposed  of. 

Then  we  have  many  kinds  of  defense  which,  though 

1  The  germs  of  tuberculosis  may  grow  in  various  parts  of  the 
body.  The  resulting  diseases  are  called  tuberculosis  of  the  bones, 
tuberculosis  of  the  intestines,  etc.  These  germs  most  frequently 
attack  the  lungs ;  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs  is  commonly  called 
consumption. 


THE   NATURAL   DEFENSES   OF   THE   BODY        63 

they  have  nothing  directly  to  do  with  disease  germs  or 
any  solid  particles,  protect  the  body  in  other  other  natu- 
ways.  When  one  is  exposed  to  heat,  mes-  rai  defenses 
sages  are  sent  from  the  brain  or  spinal  cord  along  cer- 
tain nerves  to  the  skin.  The  result  is  that  the  little  blood 
vessels  in  the  skin  dilate,  producing  perspiration,  and 
the  body  loses  heat.  Exactly  the  opposite  thing  occurs 
when  one  is  exposed  to  cold :  perspiration  is  prevented, 
and  heat  is  kept  in  the  body.  So  it  happens  that 
whether  the  day  is  hot  or  cold,  nature  by  a  self-regulat- 
ing temperature  device  keeps  the  body  at  about  the 
same  temperature  (985°). 

If  a  speck  of  dust  or  a  cinder  strikes  the  eye,  we  all 
know  how  quickly  the  eye  "waters."  This  is  nature's 
attempt  to  wash  out  the  offending  particle.  A  severe 
diarrhoea  may  occur  after  injurious  things  have  been 
eaten.  This  is  nature's  way  of  ridding  the  body  of 
something  harmful  to  it.  For  this  reason  it  is  never 
wise  to  check  the  diarrhoea  at  first.  When  the  nose 
bleeds,  or  a  finger  is  cut,  or  whenever  bleeding  occurs 
in  any  part  of  the  body,  a  clot  soon  forms.  If  this  were 
not  so,  we  should  easily  bleed  to  death.  Such  a  clot 
acts  as  a  plug  to  the  blood  tube  and  stops  it  up. 

Pain  of  all  sorts  is  nature's  warning  signal  that  some- 
thing is  wrong.      It  is  not  a  disease  but  a  symptom  of 
disease.     It  is  never  right  to  stop  the   pain  Pain . 
without  first  attempting  to  discover  its  cause,   warning 
Pain  is  like  a  bell  buoy  on  a  dangerous  rock  Slgna 
—  it    points    to  the  place  of  trouble.     One  may  easily 
stop  the  bell  from  ringing,  but  the  dangerous  rock  is 
still   there.      Nearly   all  advertised   "  pain  killers "   are 
worse  than  useless,  for  the  reason  that  they  merely  re- 


64  HYGIENE 

move  the  pain  by  deadening  the  nerves  that  give  the 
warning,  without  removing  the  cause  of  the  pain. 

One  may  stop  the  pain  of  a  headache*  with  some  head- 
ache remedy,  but  the  cause  is  still  there  and  will  prob- 
ably remain  until  man  or  nature  removes  it.  For 
instance,  it  may  be  due  to  diseased  tonsils,  or  imperfect 
eyesight,  or  a  bad  digestion,  or  constipation.  We  must 
remove  tlie  cause,  not  the  symptom,  if  we  wish  to  do  any 
real  good. 

It  is  the  same  way  with  a  cough,  for  this  is  usually  the 
symptom  of  something  else,  and  we  must  try  to  cure, 
not  the  cough,  but  the  trouble  which  causes  it.  Some- 
times it  is  even  best  to  encourage  the  cough  for  a  time, 
because  by  this  means  nature  may  be  trying  to  get  rid 
of  mucus,  bacteria,  or  other  substances  which  are  in  the 
throat  or  bronchial  tubes  or  lungs.  Advertised  "  cough 
cures"  cure  nothing  but  the  warning  symptom.  They 
merely  stop  the  bell  from  ringing.  Even  catarrh  is  not 
itself  a  disease,  but  indicates  some  other  serious  condi- 
tion in  the  nose  or  throat.  You  cannot  cure  a  case  of 
catarrh,  but  you  can  heed  the  warning,  discover  the 
cause,  and  usually  remove  it. 

So  the  various  warnings  of  disease  —  whether  they  be 
pain,   headache,    cough,   catarrh,   or   "  nervousness " 
are  really  natural  defenses  of  the  body. 

The  skin  which  covers  our  bodies  is  another  natural 
defense.  Unless  the  skin  is  broken,  bacteria  on  its  sur- 
Skin  face  cai1  never  enter  the  body.  The  lining 

protection       of  j|lc  stomach  and  intestines  acts  in   much 
the  same   way,  and  this  is  one  of  the   reasons  why  we 

1  For  further  discussion  of  headaches,  see  page  108:  of  catarrh, 
page  97. 


THE   NATURAL   DEFENSES   OF   THE    HODY        65 

ought  to  keep  the  digestive  tract  in  the  best  possible  con- 
dition. Dangerous  germs  then  may  often  pass  through 
it  quite  harmlessly. 

Almost  as  soon  as  the  skin  is  injured  in  any  way,  the 
surface  of  the  injured  spot  is  covered  with  a  sort  of 
natural  plaster.  In  time  this  forms  a  scab.  When  the 
scab  finally  falls  away,  a  clean,  new,  healthy  skin  sur- 
face is  found  beneath  it. 

When  a  bone  breaks,  nature  quickly  produces  a  great 
amount  of  material  around  the  broken  ends  to  hold  them 
together.     This  material  is  called  callus.     In  Bone 
time  it  forms  new  bone,  and  the  part  broken  heahng 
may  be  actually  stronger  than  before  the  break  occurred. 
Such  a  callus  acts  much  like  the  substance  which  forms 
around  an  injured  twig  or  limb  of  a  tree. 

Sharp  objects  and  other  foreign  substances  which  are 
swallowed  or  get  into  the  body  in  other  ways,  often  be- 
come   surrounded   with    a   sac  which    nature   p  rei        . 
forms.     Needles,  pins,  bullets,  broken  knife  stances  are 
blades,  and  even  larger  objects,  have  become 
enclosed  in  a  sac  in  this  way,  so  that  they  are  rendered 
harmless.     Sometimes  they  remain  in  the  body  for  many 
years,  or  even  for  a  lifetime,  without  the  least  harm. 

Even  the  brain  has  its  natural  defenses.     Ordinarily 
only  one  side  of  it  is  in  use.      But  when  an   Defenses  of 
injury  occurs  to  it,  the  other  and  uninjured   the  brain 
side  may  sometimes  be  brought  into  action. 

Many  of  our  actions  are  unconscious,  or  reflex.     Such 
acts  protect  us  constantly.     The  eye  winks    R  fl 
and  closes  when  an  object  threatens  to  fly  actions 
into  it ;  the  hand  draws  away  from  the  fire   pro 
before  the  brain  knows  what  or  where  the  trouble  is. 


66  HYGIENE 

Many  of  our  everyday  habits  are  reflex,  and  without 
them  we  should  soon  perish. 

One  organ  may  sometimes  take  up  the  work  of  an- 
other and  help  to  protect  the  body  in  this  way.  When 
How  or  ans  tne  kidneys  are  diseased,  the  skin  may  do  a 
help  one  an-  good  deal  of  their  work.  When  one  kidney 
is  entirely  lost  through  disease  or  accident, 
the  other  one  enlarges  and  does  double  work.  When 
an  organ  of  special  sense,  such  as  sight  or  hearing,  is 
lost,  the  other  sense  organs  nearly  always  become  more 
active  and  acute,  and  thus  help  to  supply  the  defect. 

Many  other  natural  defenses  could  be  named,  but 
enough  has  now  been  said  to  show  that  our  bodies  are 
wonderfully  well  provided  with  the  means  of  defense 
against  disease  and  accident.  The  most  important  les- 
son we  can  learn  from  these  studies  is  that  in  trying 
to  cure  disease  and  repair  accidents  in  our  bodies,  we 
must  foil ouj  nature  s  methods  as  far  as  possible.  Nature 
nearly  always  points  out  the  right  way. 


CHAPTER    IX 
WHAT  HEALTH  DEPENDS  UPON 

IN  order  to  understand  thoroughly  what  health  de- 
pends upon,  it  is  necessary  to  study  some  of  the  general 
principles  which  govern  the  action  of  the  body. 

The  successful  action  of  a  locomotive  or  any  other 
machine  depends  upon  the  soundness  of  all  its  parts.  If 
any  essential  part  is  thrown  out  of  order,  the  whole 
machine  suffers  and  perhaps  refuses  to  work.  This  is 
true  also  of  the  human  body.  Its  parts  must  be  sound 
and  in  good  working  order,  if  we  are  to  have  good 
health. 

In  a  great  factory,  the  manufacture  of  any  article  — 
as  a  piano  or  an  automobile  —  is  accomplished  by  the 
work  of  many  different  groups  of  workmen.    The   ri    . 
In  the  case  of  the  automobile,  one  group  of   pieofdivi- 
men  works  only  with  the  framework  of  the   £ 
wheels,  another  with  the  tires,  and  others  with  the  paint 
and  varnish.     Each  group  of  men  is  dependent  upon  all 
the  other  groups,  and  a  failure  of  any  one  of  these  to 
do  its  work  makes  a  successful  result  impossible. 

In  all  such  cases  there  is  a  division  of  labor,  and  be- 
cause of  this  division  each  group  learns  to  do  its  work 
very  skillfully.  Any  man  may  become  skillful  when  he 
devotes  his  whole  attention  to  one  specialty.  In  a  fac- 
tory all  the  work  is  done  by  such  specialists. 

In  early  clays  a  tailor  not  only  did  all  the  cutting  and 

67 


68 


HYGIENE 


One-celled 
objects  are 


sewing  on  a  garment,  but  he  took  the  measurement,  and 
he  often  made  the  cloth  as  well.  And  so  it  was  with 
shoemakers,  furniture  makers,  and  various  other  arti- 
sans. There  was  no  division  of  labor,  and  the  work  was 
usually  crudely  done.  Yet  such  a  workman  was,  in  a 
sense,  more  independent  than  the  specialist  of  to-day, 
who  perhaps  does  nothing  but  shovel  coal  into  a  fur- 
nace, or  sew  buttons  on  a  coat. 

The  simplest  living  plants  and  animals  that  we  know 
about  consist  of  only  one  cell  with  no  tissues  or  organs. 
This  cell  is  simply  a  minute  particle  of  living 
matter  or  protoplasm.     It  does  all  the  work 

independent  of  ufe  for  the  wnole  plant  or  animal.  There 
but  crude  . 

is  no  division  of   labor.     But  in  the    higher 

forms  of  life,  the  body  of  the  animal  or  the  plant  is 
made  up  of  groups  of  cells,  each 
doing  its  special  work  very  skillfully. 
These  groups  of  cells  are  like  the 
special  workers  in  a  great  factory. 
The  low  forms  of  the  one-celled 
growths  are  like  the  unspecialized 
workman,  quite  independent  in  their 
mode  of  life.  But  they  are  also  very 
crude  and  possess  none  of  the  higher  qualities  with 
which  we  are  familiar  in  the  animal  and  plant  world. 

At  first  all  animals  and  plants  were  simple  and  un- 
complicated, consisting  of  only  one  cell.  All  life  then 
Evolution  consisted  of  single  cells  only.  After  millions 
of  years  the  higher  forms  have  gradually  de- 
veloped from  these  single  cells.  This  is  what 
we  call  evolution.  But  as  evolution  has  grad- 
ually taken  place,  all  life  has  slowly  grown  more  com- 


A  ONE-CELLED 

ANIMAL. 


has  pro- 
duced a 
complicated 
organism 


WHAT   HEALTH    DEPENDS    UPON  69 

plicated.  Special  cells  and  organs  have  been  added. 
These  have  duties  to  perform,  so  important  that  life 
itself  depends  upon  them. 

In  the  factory  each  man  is  expected  to  do  his  work  cor- 
rectly and  promptly.  In  the  body  of  the  animal  or  plant 
each  cell  must  do  its  work  in  the  same  thorough  manner. 

Perhaps  one  man,  or  even  several  men  in   any  one 
group,  may  drop  out  or  do  poor  work  without  very  seri- 
ously affecting  the  work  of  the  whole  factory.   Faiiure  of  a 
In  such  a  case  the  other  men  in  this  group  few  ceils 
may  be  able  for  a  time  to  make  up  the  defi-  ^by6  ° 
ciencies  entirely  or  in  part.  others 

In  the  human  body  some  cells  in  a  certain  group  may 
refuse  to  work,  do  imperfect  work,  or  perhaps  even  be 
destroyed  in  some  way.  When  this  happens,  the  other 
members  of  that  group  will  double  their  efforts  and  try 
to  offset  this  misfortune.  Usually  such  efforts  on  the 
part  of  the  healthy  and  industrious  cells  in  the  group 
are  successful,  and  the  body  as  a  whole  hardly  suffers. 

If  an  entire  group  of  workmen  in  a  factory,  or  several 
such  groups,  refuse  to  work,  the  whole  factory  is  thrown 
out  of  order.  If  a  similar  group  of  cells  in  the  body 
does  the  same  sort  of  thing,  the  whole  body  suffers. 

In  the  manufacture  of  articles  there  are  sometimes 
certain  parts  so  important  that  only  men  of  the  highest 
skill  can  be  depended  upon  to  take  charge  of  g          u 
them.     Any  failure  of  such  men  to  do  their  are  of  vital 
work  would  make  the  whole  article  either  in-  impor 
ferior  or  entirely  useless.     In  the  same  way,  in  one  of 
the  higher  living  animals  or  plants,  some  cells  perform 
such  important  functions  that  any  failure  on  their  part 
injures   the    whole    organism    very    seriously,    perhaps 


70  HYGIENE 

beyond  repair.  If  the  nerve  cells  which  regulate  the 
heart  beat  or  the  group  which  controls  breathing  is 
injured  or  destroyed,  the  whole  body  suffers  and  per- 
haps dies.  What  happens  is  much  the  same  as  when  the 
sparker  of  an  automobile  refuses  to  work  or  the  piston 
to  drive.  Some  essential  part  has  given  out. 

The  more  complicated    a    machine  or  other  lifeless 

thing  is  made,   the  more  easily  it  gets  out  of  order. 

Exactly  the  same  thing  may  be  said  of  the 

Important 

parts  are        body.     Important  parts  are  hard  to  replace 

hard  to  re-  either  in  a  machine  or  in  man.  Nerve  cells 
place 

once  destroyed  are  never  replaced.  Many 
of  the  simpler  and  therefore  less  important  cells  of  the 
body  are  easily  reproduced,  as  for  example  the  blood 
cells.  Such  cells  are  constantly  wearing  out  and  dying, 
while  others  quickly  take  their  places.1  But  if  a  man 
loses  a  hand,  it  can  never  be  replaced. 

A  person  is  in  health  when  all  his  cells  and  organs 
What  are  working  together  for  the  good  of  the 

health  and     whole  body.      A  person  is  sick  or  diseased 

recovery 

depend  when  some  of  his  cells  or  organs  ret  use  to 
uP°n  do\  their  regular  work. 

The  seriousness  of  sickness  depends  upon  : 
i.    Whether  highly  important  cells  or  organs  are  af- 
fected, or  only  the  simpler  and  therefore  less  important 
ones. 

1  If  a  crab  loses  a  claw,  another  one  quickly  grows  in  its  place. 
Crayfish  and  similar  animals  cast  off  their  entire  hard  outer  coats. 
Many  animals,  such  as  deer,  shed  their  horns  and  soon  grow  new 
ones.  Birds  shed  their  feathers  (molt).  On  man,  the  outer  skin 
is  always  being  removed  and  replaced  by  new  skin.  We  cut  off  our 
hair  and  our  nails,  which  are  composed  of  worn-out,  dead  cells. 


WHAT   HEALTH   DEPENDS   UPON  71 

2.  Whether  the  injury  to  the  cells  or  organs  is  slight 
and  includes  only  a  small  area,  or  whether  it  is  serious 
and  includes  a  large  area. 

Recovery  from  disease  occurs  if  there  has  not  been 
too  much  injury  to  the  cells  or  organs. 


CHAPTER   X 
THE   CAUSES   OF  DISEASE 

THERE  is  always  a  definite  cause  for  sickness.     Some- 
times the  cause  is  hard  to  find,  sometimes  it  is  easy. 
There  is  always  a  reason  for  the  direction  of 

Health  and 

disease          the  wind  or  for  the  course  of  a  river.     1  hese 
follow  natu-    things  follow  what  we  call  natural  laws.     It 

ral  laws 

is  exactly  the  same  with  the  health  of  the 
body.  Health,  too,  is  subject  to  natural  laws.  When  we 
know  what  these  laws  are,  we  can  usually  obey  .them 
and  profit  by  them  ;  but  when  we  are  in  ignorance  of 
them,  we  suffer.  Nothing  in  nature  ever  happens  by 
chance.  Health  or  sickness  is  not  a  matter  of  good  or 
bad  luck,  but  a  matter  of  obeying  or  disobeying  the  laws 
of  health. 

Every  organ  in  the  body  has  a  special  work  to  do. 
We  call  thisvwork  the  function  of  the  organ.  When 
What  sick-  anything  interferes  with  the  work  of  one 
or  several  organs  of  the  body,  then  we 
are  sick.  No  machine  can  do  its  work  properly  unless 
all  its  parts  are  in  good  order.  No  person,  likewise,  can 
do  the  work  of  life  properly  unless  all  his  organs  are 
in  good  order. 

If  an  engine  is  to  do  its  work  in  the  best  possible  way, 
it  must,  of  course,  receive  the  right  amount  and  kind  of 
fuel.  The  different  parts  must  be  clean  and  well  oiled  ; 
ashes  must  not  be  allowed  to  accumulate;  there  must 

72 


THE, CAUSES   OF   DISEASE  73 

be  a  good  draft  under   the  furnace ;     the   smokestack 
must  be  able  to  carry  off  the  smoke  and  gases 
which  the  engine  cannot  use.     Many  people  machine  is 
who  understand  these  things  perfectly  about  kePtin 

good  order 

a  machine,   such   as    a    locomotive    or  auto- 
mobile or  harvester,  do  not  realize  that  the  same  rules 
apply    to    the    most    important   of    all    machines  —  the 
human  body. 

The  body,  like  a  machine,  often  becomes  clogged  with 
waste  substances.  It  frequently  does  not  get  enough 
draft  (pure  air  for  breathing).  It  frequently  receives 
the  wrong  sort  of  fuel  (food).  Many  human  machines 
receive  more  food  than  they  can  possibly  use,  and  some 
do  not  receive  enough.  Many  of  them  are  not  kept 
clean. 

As  engineers  of  our  own  bodies  we  ought  to  under- 
stand all  the  parts  of  this  machine,  how  they  do  their 
work,  and  what  things  interfere  with  their  work.  But 
most  of  us  let  the  machine  run  itself,  and  if  it  gets  out 
of  order  we  call  a  doctor  to  repair  it. 

A  doctor  is  a  specially  trained  Jiuman  engineer,  who 
understands  the  complications  of   the   human    machine 
which  are  too  difficult  for  the  average  person.   The  physi- 
Every  one  ought  to  know  how  to  do  the  ordi-  cian  as  a 

trained 

nary  repairs,   but   sometimes    he    needs    the  human  en- 
special  "engineer."     It  is  the  business  of  the  Rmeer 
science  of  medicine  to  try  to  discover  what  things  cause 
trouble  in  the  human  machine,  just  as  it  is  the  business 
of  a  locomotive  engineer  to  discover  what  things  inter- 
fere with  the  best  action  of  his  engine. 

Many  persons  who  would  never  think  of  allowing  a 
poor  mechanic  to  repair  their  automobile  or  watch  or 


74  HYGIENE 

harvesting  machine,  will,  when  sick,  turn  themselves 
over  for  treatment  to  almost  any  sort  of  doctor  or  even  a 
"quack."  A  skillful  physician  understands  his  work. 
People  expect  this  much  of  the  man  who  repairs  their 
watch,  shoes  their  horses,  cooks  their  food,  or  drives 
their  automobile.  Why  should  they  not  ask  the  same  of 
their  doctor  ?  If  the  proper  qualifications  were  required 
of  all  who  attempt  to  heal  the  sick,  we  could  easily  do 
away  with  the  dangerous,  unskillful  healers  in  every 
community. 

We  must  now  attempt  to  understand  what  are  some  of 
the  things  or  conditions  which  put  our  bodies  out  of  order. 

These  may  be  classed  in  two  large  groups : 
which'inter-  I-  Those  things  which  weaken  the  body  in 
fere  with  some  way  so  that  we  are  likely  to  "take" 
many  diseases.  Eating  the  wrong  kind  of 
food,  bad  ventilation,  and  abuse  of  alcohol  are  examples 
of  such  things. 

2.  Those  things  which  directly  cause  disease.  Bacteria 
and  other  small  forms  of  life  which  get  into  the  body 
are  examples  of  these. 

There  are  many  ways  in  which  we  may  weaken  our 

power  to  resist  disease.     When  this  power  of  resistance 

is    weakened,   certain   dangerous    germs    are 

Weakening 

the  body's  able  to  get  a  start ;  but  if  the  body  is  strong, 
power  of  tne  germs  can  do  it  no  harm.  We  "take 

resistance 

a  cold,  for  instance,  not  because  of  sitting 
in  a  draft,  but  because  the  sudden  chilling  of  the  body 
weakens  its  power  to  resist  and  the  germs  gain  a  foothold 
in  the  nose  or  throat.  These  germs  are  always  ready 
to  begin  their  harmful  work ;  but  if  we  take  proper 
care  of  our  bodies,  and  strengthen  them,  we  shall  not 


THE   CAUSES   OF   DISEASE 


75 


be  affected  by  the  germs.  By  taking  intelligent  care, 
we  can  ward  off  almost  any  disease,  no  matter  how 
much  we  may  be  exposed  to  it. 

There   are  some  occupations  which  are    unhealthful 
and  lead  to  certain  diseases.    Knife  grinders,  file  workers, 
stone  masons,  and  workers  in  bakeries  and 
other   dusty  places  have  a  tendency  toward  occupation's 
tuberculosis.     Many  children  are  forced  to  do 
unhealthful  work,  when  they  ought  to  be  engaged  in 


BOYS  WORKING  AT  MIDNIGHT  IN  A  GLASS  FACTORY. 

Photograph  by  Hine,  National  Child  Labor  Committee. 

healthful  school  work  and  outdoor  play.  Thousands 
of  such  children  die  or  are  made  invalids  every  year 
by  their  unnatural  way  of  living.  This  is  particularly 
true  of  children  who  work  in  glass  factories,  sweat- 
shops, cotton  mills,  tobacco  factories,  and  coal  mines. 


76  HYGIENE 

In  many  factories  these  poor  children  are  obliged 
to  work  at  night.  They  are  robbed  of  their  natural 
hours  of  sleep,  and  often  form  habits  harmful  to  both 
minds  and  bodies.  Very  often  they  get  into  the  habit 
of  using  strong  tea  and  coffee,  or  even  more  harmful 
drinks,  thinking  that  these  will  help  them  to  keep 
awake.  Sunlight  is  nature's  great  health  giver,  and 
children  who  work  at  night  and  sleep  during  the  day 
are  never  healthy.  Some  of  these  small  workers  get 
very  little  sleep  at  any  time,  for  they  are  obliged 
to  do  other  work  to  help  the  family  during  part  of 
the  day. 

Few  saloon  keepers  or  other  people  who  handle 
liquors  live  to  old  age.  Any  occupation  which  tempts 
a  man  to  use  much  alcohol  usually  shortens  his 
life. 

Some  occupations  tend  to  give  long  life.  Farmers, 
fishermen,  carpenters,  gardeners,  and  clergymen  are 
among  those  whose  work  leads  to  long  life.  Such 
people  not  only  escape  unhealthful  surroundings,  but 
they  get  plenty  of  fresh  air  and  sleep  and  generally 
do  not  worry  very  much.  Worry  and  unnecessary 
trouble  shorten  the  lives  of  very  many  people.  We 
ought  all  to  learn  the  habit  of  cheerfulness. 

Many  persons  inherit  weak  constitutions.    Such  people 

do  not  resist  disease  well.     The  children  of  intemperate 

parents  often  escape  the  evil  of  intemperance 

themselves,  but  they  rarely  escape  weakened 

bodies.     These  children  easily  fall  into  bad 

habits  of  many  kinds.     They  are  likely  to  go  to  excess 

in    many    things,    such    as    in    the    use   of   coffee,   tea, 

tobacco,  alcohol,  and  various   drugs.     The    children    of 


THE   CAUSES   OF   DISEASE 


77 


drinking  parents  form  a  large  per  cent  of  criminals, 
paupers,  and  the  inmates  of  insane  asylums.  Very  often 
they  lack  the  ability  to  recognize  their  own  weakness 
and  faults.  They  generally  have  less  moral  control 
of  themselves  than  other  children  have. 


HEALTHFUL  OUTDOOR  WORK  FOR  CHILDRF.X. 

There  are  many  other  conditions  of  life  which  weaken 
a  person's  power  to  resist  sickness,  such  as  living  in 
un health ful  climates  or  in  badly  ventilated  rooms, 
breathing  sewer  gas,  eating  poor  food  or  eating  too 
much  food,  and  lack  of  cleanliness.  During  the 
period  of  childhood  one  is  liable  to  have  certain  kinds 
of  sickness,  in  old  age  others,  and  in  middle  life  still 
others. 

We  must  now  study  some  of  the  direct  or  active  causes 
of  disease.  We  would  not  often  become  very  ill  if  it 


78  HYGIENE 

were  not  for  bacteria J  or  other  minute  forms  of  life, 
which  take   advantage  of   us  when  we  are 

Bacteria, 

the  active         run  down.       These  little  germs  get  into  the 

causes  of  body,  and  either  form  poisons  there  or  do 
disease 

harm  in  some  other  way. 

Bacteria  are  so  very  small  that  they  can  be  seen  only 
by  the  use  of  a  powerful  microscope.  The  head  of  a 

pin    would    furnish 

sPace  for  many 

millions    of     them. 
They  have  various 

c 

forms;     some     are 

Diphtheria  Typhoid  Fever 

round,    some    oval, 
BACTERIA  OF  DISEASE. 

some     rod -shaped, 

Notice  also  the  picture  on  page  60. 

and  others  form 

spirals.  Some  bacteria  are  provided  with  hair-like  ex- 
tensions by  means  of  which  they  swim  about  in  water  or 
other  fluids.  Many  bacteria  have  no  power  of  motion. 

When  bacteria  are  furnished  with  favorable  food, 
moisture,  and  temperature,  they  grow  and  multiply  very 
rapidly.  Disease  germs  multiply  most  rapidly  at  body 
temperature  ^98 1°).  It  has  been  estimated  that  if  ideal 
conditions  for  their  increase  were  provided,  such  as 
proper  food,  temperature,  and  moisture,  one  tiny  germ 
would  in  a  few  days  multiply  so  rapidly  that  all  the 
oceans  of  the  world  would  be  filled  solid  with  bacteria. 
Of  course  such  ideal  conditions  could  never  exist. 

All  bacteria  do  not  cause  sickness.  Some  are  most 
useful  and  indeed  necessary  to  us.  Certain  useful  bac- 

1  Bacteria  are  minute,  one-celled  plants.  There  are  also  very 
small  animal  forms  of  life,  called  parasites,  which  cause  some  dis- 
eases, as  malaria. 


THE   CAUSES   OF   DISEASE  79 

teria  ripen  butter  and  give  it  a  pleasant  flavor ;  others 
produce  the  flavors  of  cheese ;  others  change  useful 
cider  or  wine  into  vinegar.     Some  have  the  bacteria 
wonderful  power  of  helping  plants  of  the  clover  family 
to  take  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  give  it  to  the  soil,  which 
needs  nitrogen  to  make  it  more  fertile. 

If  we  did  not  have  certain  kinds  of  bacteria,  nothing 
would  decay.     The  world  would  then  become  covered 
with  dead  animals  and  plants.     A  tree  falling  The  ba 
in  the  forest  would  remain  as  it  fell ;  a  fish  teria  of 
dying  in  the  sea  would  never  decay. 

Plants  and  animals  all  get  their  nourishment  from  the 
soil  and  air  and  water.  When  we  eat  mutton,  we  are 
using  the  things  which  the  sheep  took  from  the  grass 
it  fed  upon.  If  we  eat  potatoes  or  other  vegetables,  we 
are  using  those  things  which  the  potato  and  other  plants 
took  from  the  earth  and  air  to  grow  upon.  When  plants 
and  animals  die,  their  substance  passes  back  to  the  air 
and  soil,  and  can  then  be  used  again  as  food  for  new 
plants  and  animals.  This  decaying  is  the  work  which 
the  bacteria  of  decay  accomplish.  Our  world  could  not 
possibly  exist  without  these  small,  busy  friends  of  ours. 

In  order  to  prevent  fermentation  and  decay  we  often  take 
advantage  of  our  knowledge  of  the  following  facts  : 

1.  Cold  prevents  the  growth  of  bacteria.     It  is  for  this  reason 
that  so  much  use  is  made  of  cold  storage.     On  the  same  principle 
we  use  ice  boxes  in  which  to  preserve  foods  in  our  homes. 

2.  Heat  destroys  bacteria.     For  this  reason  we  boil  fruits, 
meats,  or  vegetables,  and  then  seal  them  in  air-tight  cans  or 
jars,  where  they  keep  indefinitely. 

3.  Thick  sirups  prevent  the  growth  of  bacteria.  Use  is 
made  of  this  fact  in  much  of  our  preserving. 


80  HYGIENE 

4.  Crystallized    sugar    prevents   the    growth    of    bacteria. 
Ginger,  various  fruits,  and  some  other  foods  are  preserved  in 
this  way. 

5.  Sfrotig  salt  solutions    (brine)    prevent    the   growth    of 
bacteria.     Pork,  beef,  and  pickles  are  preserved  in  brine. 

6.  Drying  kills  bacteria  and  prevents    their    growth.     We 
often  depend  upon  this  principle   in   preserving   meat,  fruits, 
and  vegetables. 

There  are,  however,  some  bacteria  which  are  rnc- 
mies,  instead  of  friends,  of  man.  Their  number  is  corn- 
Disease  paratively  small,  but  they  do  great  harm, 
germs  Qur  grandparents  knew  nothing  about  bac- 

teria or  how  they  cause  disease.  Even  late  in  the  last 
century  little  was  known  about  these  tiny  but  powerful 
plants.  Now  we  know  that  most  of  our  common  dis- 
eases are  caused  by  them.  Expert  students  can  exam- 
ine and  study  these  microscopic  living  things;  and  with 
our  increasing  knowledge  of  them  the  control  and  cure 
of  diseases  have  become  far  more  certain. 


CHAPTER   XI 
CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 

A  contagious  disease,  strictly  speaking,  is  one  which 
occurs  only  from  contact  —  such  a  disease  as  a  person 
may  readily  take,  or  "  catch,"  from  one  who  is  ill.  In 
a  broad  sense,  however,  contagious  diseases  are  all  dis- 
eases which  are  spread  in  any  way  by  bacteria  or  other 
minute  forms  of  life.1 

In  olden  times  people  thought  that  diseases  such  as 
cholera,  smallpox,  plague,  and  other  contagious  dis- 
eases, which  spread  as  great  epidemics,  were  ignorance 
caused  either  by  evil  spirits  for  revenge,  or  and  disease 
by  a  god  for  the  punishment  of  sin.  No  attempts  were 
made  to  make  the  surroundings  of  life  clean  and  sani- 
tary. Streets  were  used  as  open  sewers ;  the  sick  were 
kept  with  the  well ;  personal  cleanliness  was  not  prac- 
ticed much;  dwellings  were  poorly  ventilated  ;  food  was 
poorly  prepared  ;  and  in  general  people  lived  unsanitary 
lives.  People  have  always  paid  a  fearful  penalty  for 
this  sort  of  ignorance. 

All  kinds  of  things  were  done  to  appease  the  particu- 
lar god  or  demon  who  was  supposed  to  be  the  cause  of 
the  trouble.  These  superstitious  people  used  to  ring 
bells  to  drive  away  the  evil  spirits  of  disease ;  burn 
human  beings  as  sacrifices  to  the  gods ;  consult  sor- 

1  A  better  term  than  contagions  for  all  these  diseases  is  communi- 
cable. 

Si 


82  HYGIENE 

ceresses;  entomb  living  people  in  the  walls  of  build- 
ings; bury  them  alive;  and  do  many  other  cruel  and 
foolish  things,  all  because  of  their  ignorant  ideas  about 
disease.  Even  to-day  we  have  left  a  suggestion  of  this 
early  superstition  and  ignorance. 

Those  who  believe  in  mysterious  methods  of  cure 
which  they  cannot  understand,  and  those  who  take 
Mysterious  Patent  medicines  about  which  they  know 
cures  are  nothing,  are  little  better  than  their  more 
ignorant  ancestors  who  consulted  sorcer- 
esses. It  is  because  of  this  ignorance  and  superstition 
which  still  exist,  that  every  town  and  city  has  so  many 
special  healers  and  impostors  who  promise  cures  for  dis- 
eases. The  advertisements  of  marvelous  cures  in  the 
newspapers  appeal  to  this  same  ignorance. 

Although  great  numbers  of  people  still  ignorantly 
spend  their  hard-earned  money  for  worthless  drugs  and 
for  the  services  of  worthless  healers,  yet  we  have  made 
a  great  advance  in  such  matters.  Scientists  have  taught 
us  that  the  causes  of  disease  are  not  mysterious  and 
that  diseases  are  never  successfully  treated  by  any  mys- 
terious methods.  Nothing  in  nature  is  really  mysterious. 
Mystery  is  only  another  name  for  ignorance. 

Long  before  bacteria  were  discovered,  men  learned 
that  certain  diseases  are  in  some  way  contagious.  They 
inteiu  ence  a^so  ^earnec^  tnat  cleanliness  of  person  and 
can  control  surroundings  decreases  disease.  Now,  with 
our  new  and  exact  knowledge  of  bacteria, 
we  know  the  causes  of  contagious  diseases  and  how 
to  prevent  them.  Scientific  students  are  all  the  time 
learning  more  about  the  control  and  cure  of  disease. 

In  countries  like  China  and  India  there  are  still  many 


CONTAGIOUS   DISEASES   AND   THEIR   CONTROL      83 

sections  where  people  are  no  better  educated  about  dis- 
ease than  we  were  five  hundred  years  or  more  ago. 
These  are  the  places  where  great  epidemics  still  rage 
unchecked.  Hundreds  of  thousands  die  every  year 
from  the  bubonic  plague  in  India. 

This  terrible  disease  appeared  in  the  United  States  in 
1900.  It  was  first  discovered  in  San  Francisco.  Our 
knowledge  of  how  it  is  caused  made  it  possible  for  us  to 
prevent  its  spread.  Probably  our  country  will  never 
again  have  a  great  epidemic  of  any  kind  of  disease, 
because  we  understand  how  diseases  are  carried  and 
how  to  check  them. 

When  our  government  took  charge  of  Cuba,  in  1898, 
one  of  the  first  things  it  did  was  to  clean  up  the  towns 
and  cities  and  drain  the  wet  places.     In  this  Yellow 
way  it  succeeded  in  exterminating  the  mosqui-  fever  and 

,,..,.        malaria  in 

toes,  which  breed  m  water  and  by  their  bite  Cuba  and 
cause  yellow  fever  and  malaria.1     These  dis-  Panama 
eases  had  always  been  present  in  Cuba,  destroying  hun- 
dreds of  people  every  year.     Our  government  has  made 

1  So  far  as  we  know,  yellow  fever  and  malaria  are  the  only  diseases 
in  this  country  carried  by  mosquitoes.  It  is  interesting  to  know 
something  of  how  mosquitoes  tnay  be  exterminated.  There  are  three 
methods  commonly  in  use  : 

1.  Kerosene  oil  may  be  spread  upon  the  surface  of  ponds  and 
other  places  where  mosquitoes   breed.     This   prevents  the  young 
insects,  or  larvae,  as  they  are  called,  from  rising  to  the  surface  and 
getting  air ;  without  air  they  die  quickly. 

2.  Fish  may  be  placed  in  ponds,  reservoirs,  and  the  like.     These 
fish  feed  upon  the  young  insects  and  thus  destroy  them. 

3.  Swamps  and  other  places  where  water  collects  may  be  drained. 
Rain  barrels  and  other  receptacles  for  water  may  be  screened  to 
prevent  mosquitoes  laying  eggs  in  the  water. 


84  HYGIENE 

Cuba  as  healthful  a  place  to  live  in  as  any  place  in  our 
own  country.  It  has  more  recently  done  a  similar  work 
ill  Panama. 


MOSQUITOES. 

On  the  left  the  mosquito  that  carries  malaria;  on  the  right  the  harmless 
mosquito.     In  resting  position. 

But  there  are  two  diseases  in  our  country  that  we 
are  far  too  careless  about,  in  spite  of  our  knowledge. 
The  control  These  are  consumption  and  typhoid  fever, 
ti  n^nd"11^  Sometime  we  shall  succeed  in  wiping  out 
typhoid  these  diseases  in  the  United  States,  but  com- 
paratively little  has  yet  been  done.  We  have  become 
used  to  these  two  fearful  diseases,  just  as  the  Cubans 
had  becomfc  used  to  yellow  fever  and  malaria.  It  is 
true  that  both  consumption  and  typhoid  are  harder  to 
control  than  yellow  fever  or  malaria,  but  ivc  can  control 
tliem  when  enough  people  become  really  educated  in 
health  matters.  This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  every 
pupil  in  school  to-day  ought  to  study  and  understand 
how  to  care  for  his  health. 

Tuberculosis  of  the  lungs,  or  consumption,  is  a  conta- 
gious disease,  spread  largely  by  the  expectorations  of 
consumptives.  Every  year  in  this  country  at  least 
150,000  persons  die  from  this  preventable  disease  —  this 


CONTAGIOUS   DISEASES   AND   THEIR   CONTROL     8$ 


Red  blood    Cell 


" great  white  plague"  of  the  human  race.  At  least 
200,000  persons  in  our  population  are  constantly  sick 
and  more  or  less  helpless  with  it.  (See  page  199  for 
further  discussion  of  tuber- 
culosis.) 


The    prevalence    of 
typJioid  fever    results    in 

Sewage         larSe    Part    fl"°m 
and  dangerous  habits 

of  the  past  which 
thousands  are  still  practic- 
ing in  spite  of  all  that  has 
been  learned  about  disease. 


Cell  from   Throat 


For  example,  many  cities 


TUBERCULOSIS  GERMS. 
Expectoration,  showing  a  great  num- 

pour      their      SCWage      into    b"  °f  ^erculosis  germs  which  spread 

the  disease  if  not  destroyed. 

rivers  and  then  draw  water 

from  those  same  rivers  for  drinking  purposes.  Most 
of  the  cities  along  the  Mississippi,  Ohio,  Missouri, 
Hudson,  Wabash,  and  many  other  rivers,  do  this. 
Until  a  few  years  ago  the  city  of  Chicago  emptied  all 
of  its  vast  amount  of  sewage  into  Lake  Michigan  and 
then  drew  the  water  of  the  lake  into  the  dwellings  for 
drinking.  In  such  cases,  epidemics  of  typhoid  fever 
occur  from  time  to  time  because  the  typhoid  germs  pass 
into  the  drinking  water  with  the  sewage.  Every  year 
thousands  of  deaths  from  typhoid  fever  in  this  country 
occur  in  just  this  way.  Every  one  of  tJicsc  dcatJis  is 
unnecessary  and  due  to  ignorance  or  carelessness. 

Diphtheria,    smallpox,    scarlet  fever,    measles,    pneu- 
monia, chicken  pox,  mumps,  and  influenza  are 

Quarantine 
all  contagious   diseases,  and   these   we   have 

learned    to    control    to   a   considerable    extent.      Boards 


86 


HYGIENE 


of  health  insist  upon  the  isolation  of  people  sick  with 
such  diseases ;  this  is  called  placing  them  in  quarantine.1 

People  sometimes 
think  the  regulations 
are  very  strict,  and  that 
it  is  a  great  hardship 
to  keep  pupils  out  of 
school  and  to  isolate  a 
family  afflicted  with  a 
contagious  disease ; 
but  it  is  only  by  such 
methods  that  the  dis- 
ease can  be  controlled 
and  exterminated.  If 
strict  control  were 
practiced,  it  would  be 
possible  to  wipe  such 
diseases  entirely  out 
of  existence.  (See 
page  169.) 

After  a  case  of  con- 
tagious disease,  the  house  must  be  thoroughly  disin- 
fected;  that  is,  cleansed  so  as  to  destroy  the 
germs  of  disease.  The  room  occupied  by  the 
patient  should  be  closed  for  some  hours  to  allow  dust 
particles  to  settle,  and  then  fumigated  with  formalde- 
hyde gas.  After  fumigation  the  room  should  be  thor- 
oughly cleaned  with  hot  soda  solution,  chloride  of  lime, 
or  two  per  cent  carbolic  acid  solution.  Finally  it  should 

1  Different  states  vary  in  their  laws  about  quarantine.  Measles, 
mumps,  chicken  pox,  pneumonia,  and  influenza  are  not  always  quar- 
antined. 


A  HYGIENIC  DRINKING  FOUNTAIN. 
It  helps  to  diminish  contagious  diseases. 


Disinfection 


CONTAGIOUS   DISEASES   AND   THEIR   CONTROL      8/ 

be  aired  and  sunned,  and  kept  vacant  for  several  days. 
The  disinfection  is  best  done  by  the  health  officer  or 
the  physician  in  charge ;  but  for  practical  purposes  the 
following  method  will  prove  fairly  satisfactory  : 

1.  Clean  the  rooms  thoroughly. 

(a)  Hang  clothing,  curtains,  rugs,  and  bedclothes  in 
the  bright  sunlight  for  several  hours. 

(/£)  Wash  the  woodwork  with  water  containing  about 
one  pint  of  formalin  to  every  gallon  of  water. 

(<•)    Air  out  the  rooms  for  several  hours. 

(<•/)  Boil  all  linen,  bedclothes,  and  other  things  which 
have  come  in  contact  with  the  sick  person. 

2.  Give  the  person  who  has  recovered  from  the  contagious 

disease,  and  those  who  have  been  with  him,  a  hot  bath 
with  plenty  of  soap. 

3.  Burn  infected  articles  which  cannot  be  boiled.      Toys 

and  books  should  receive  particular  care. 

Dark,  damp  places  favor  the  growth  of  bacteria; 
sunlight  and  lack  of  moisture  are  destructive  to  them. 
Rooms  that  do  not  get  sunlight  are  therefore 

Conditions 

likely  to  harbor  disease   germs.       Briefly  it  that  favor 

may  be  said  that  heat,  moisture,  lack  of  sun-  the  growth 

of  bacteria 
light,  and  poor  ventilation  favor  the  life  of 

bacteria.  These  are  some  of  the  conditions  we  must 
guard  against  in  fighting  disease.  We  must  remember 
also  that  sunlight  and  frcsJi  air  are  the  best  disinfectants 
in  the  world. 

We  must  now  consider  how  the  germs  of  contagious 
diseases  are  spread.     Many  germs  are  spread  HOW  bac- 
by  the  air.     Germs  are  often  present  in  the   gp"eaadreby 
expectoration    of    patients.       If    this    is    not  the  air 
destroyed,  the  germs  become  dry  and  float  about  with 


88 


HYGIENE 


the  dust  of  the  air ;  then  they  are  drawn  into  the  lungs 

in  breathing. 

The  air  of  cities  and   of   crowded    places  is   always 

more  heavily  laden  with  germs  than  the  air  of  the  coun- 
try. On  mountains 
and  at  sea  the  air  is 
practically  free  from 
germs.  Pneumonia, 
which  is  a  germ  dis- 
ease, is  very  common 
in  cities,  but  rare  in 
the  country.  It  is  in- 
creasing in  all  large 
centers  of  population. 
One  of  the  reasons 
the  rooms  in  a  house, 
lecture  hall,  church, 
and  theater  ought  to 
be  well  ventilated,  is 
because  germs  are 
usually  abundant  in 
such  places.  Street 
cars,  railroad  cars 
(especially  the  sleep- 
ing cars),  hotels,  and 
restaurants  are  other 

places  where  germs  are  likely  to  be  dangerous.     The 

danger  in  crowded,  badly  ventilated   places  is   largely 

because  the  air  is  infected  ivit/i  genus. 

Several    diseases    are    carried     by    water.      Typhoid 

fever  is  one  of  these.     This,  as   we  know,  is  because 

of  the   sewage   which   is   emptied  into   the  water  sup- 


A  DARK,  UNVENTILATED  BEDROOM. 
Where  disease  germs  flourish. 


CONTAGIOUS    DISEASES   AND   THEIR    CONTROL     89 


plies.      Cholera  is  spread   in  the  same  way.      When- 
ever there  is  reason  to  suspect  that  the  water  Bacteria  in 
supplies  are  contaminated,  the  water  should  water,  milk, 
be  thoroughly  boiled  before  use. 

Typhoid  fever  is  frequently  spread  by  means  of  milk 
supplies.      Usually    the    bacteria    come    from    infected 
water  in  which  the  cans  and 
other     utensils     have     been 
washed.     Diphtheria  and 
tuberculosis,  and  occasionally 
other    diseases    also,   may  be 
carried  by  milk. 

Meat  may  carry  the  germs 
of  tuberculosis  when  the 
animal  from  which  the  meat 
comes  has  had  this  disease. 
All  meat  should  be  inspected  to 
guard  against  this. 

Many  germs  are  carried  by 
clothing,  carpets,  bed  cover- 
Bacteria  in  inss'  towels>  hans- 

clothing  and   ings,     dishes,     and 

furnishings       Qther   househol(j 

things.  Probably  measles, 
diphtheria,  scarlet  fever,  pneu- 
monia, and  tuberculosis  are 

frequently  spread  in  this  way.  Carpets,  heavy  rugs, 
and  hangings — everything  that  is  not  easily  cleansed 
and  aired  —  should  be  abolished  from  the  sick-room. 
The  luxurious  Pullman  sleeping  car  is  very  hard  to 
keep  clean  because  of  the  heavy  upholstery,  curtains, 
and  decorations  which  it  contains.  These  cars  are  not 


MEAT,  SHOWINC   INSPECTOR'S 
MARKS. 


HYGIENE 


always  hygienic.      All  places  of  public  gatherings,  in 
eluding  hotels,  ought  to  have  plain,  simple  furnishings. 
Several    important   diseases   are   carried    by  insects. 
This  is  one  of  the  latest  discoveries  of  science. 
Malaria     is     carried    by    mosquitoes. 
Yellow  fever  is  carried  by  mosquitoes. 
Typhoid  fever  is  carried  by  flies. 
Tuberculosis  and  diphtheria,  and  possibly  some  other 

diseases,  may  be  carried  by  flies. 

Leprosy  is  probably  carried  by  bedbugs,  and  possibly 
by  flies  and  fleas. 


Diseases 
carried  by 
insects  and 
animals 


A  BREEDING-PLACE  KOK  KI.IKS. 

This  is  a  dairy  which  furnished  milk  to  a.  large  eity. 

Glanders  is  carried  by  horses. 

Tuberculosis   is  carried   by  cattle,  dogs,  cats,  and  some 

other  animals. 

Diphtheria  is  sometimes  carried  by  cattle. 
Plague  is  carried  by  fleas  which  infest  rats. 


CONTAGIOUS   DISEASES   AND   THEIR   CONTROL     91 

There  are  many  other  methods  by  which  contagious 
diseases  are  spread,  but  enough  has  been  said  for  our 
purposes.     It  must  be  plain  to  every  one  that   The  need  of 
the  control  of  these  diseases  is  largely  a  matter  cleanliness 
of  absolute  cleanliness  of  person  and  surroundings. 

Mosquitoes  cannot  breed  where  there  is  no  stagnant 
water. 

Flies  breed  in  refuse  and  manure  piles. 

Rats  always  live  in  filthy  places. 

Water  polluted  by  sewage  is  not  clean. 

The  habit  of  expectoration  on  streets  is  dangerous. 

In  a  word,  clean  habits,  sunshine,  fresh  air,  and  pure 
food  mean  death  to  disease. 


CHAPTER   XII 
COLDS  AND  THEIR   PREVENTION 

COLDS  usually  seem  to  be  of  little  importance.  For 
this  reason  most  of  us  ignore  them  until  they  have 
gained  a  firm  hold.  But  when  we  consider  all  the  dis- 
comfort endured  from  colds  and  study  carefully  the 
consequences  of  them,  it  becomes  apparent  that  they 
are  far  more  serious  than  appears  on  the  surface. 

What  we  call  a  "cold"  is  a  catarrhal  fever.     Every 

Colds  are  co^  's  ^ue  *°  some  sor^  °^  infection.  By  this 
caused  by  is  meant  that  bacteria  of  some  kind  have 
lodged  in  the  nose  or  throat  and  are  there 
growing  and  multiplying. 

Frequently  one  "  takes  a  cold "  after  attending  a 
crowded,  badly  ventilated  church,  theater,  or  lecture 
Colds  are  hall,  or  after  sitting  in  close  street  cars, 
contagious  CoMs  contracted  during  trips  in  sleeping 
cars  are  very  common.  Wherever  many  people  are 
crowded  together  with  poor  ventilation,  the  air  is  always 
heavily  laden  with  bacteria.  These  facts  show  us  that 
colds  are  contagious.  Every  one  must  have  noticed 
how  colds  run  through  a  whole  family.  Epidemics  of 
colds  sometimes  follow  dust  storms  or  dusty  days  with 
considerable  wind.  This  is  because  certain  germs  capa- 
ble of  causing  colds  are  carried  with  the  dust  and  are 
inhaled. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  travelers  who  have 

92 


COLDS   AND   THEIR   PREVENTION  93 

returned  from  the  polar  regions  report  the  entire 
absence  of  colds,  even  after  the  severest  exposure  to 
very  low  temperatures  and  wet.  This  is  of  course  ex- 
plained by  the  absence  of  bacteria  in  such  regions.  Far 
out  at  sea  colds  are  rarely  experienced,  for  the  same 
reason.  The  passengers  on  ships  approaching  land 
from  great  distances  often  notice  epidemics  of  colds  as 
soon  as  they  encounter  the  land  breezes  bearing  dust 
and  therefore  bacteria.  Residents  in  mountainous 
regions  and  in  sparsely  settled  countries  suffer  far  less 
from  colds  than  do  people  who  live  at  lower  levels  and 
in  or  near  centers  of  population. 

The    reason    a    person   takes  cold    after   sitting  in  a 
direct  draft  or  after  a  drenching,  is  because  the  body  is 
chilled.    This  chilling  reduces  the  body'spoiver  why  we 
of  resistance,  and  if  the  right  kind  of  bacteria  take  cold 
are  present,  one  comes  down  with  a  cold.     An  attack  of 
indigestion  will  sometimes  bring  on  a  cold  in  much  the 
same  way.     Every  one  must  have  noticed  how  easy  it  is 
to  take  cold  when  very  tired  or  exhausted.     Anything 
which  reduces  the  resisting  powers  of  the  body  makes 
us  more  susceptible  to  disease. 

It  is  because  the  bacteria  of  colds  are  nearly  always 
present  and  because  we  do  so  many  things  which 
weaken  our  natural  powers  of  defense,  that  we  have  so 
many  colds.  Those  who  learn  how  to  live  normal  lives 
hardly  ever  suffer  from  colds.  On  the  other  hand, 
many  people  eat  too  much,  bathe  too  little,  exhaust 
themselves  with  work  or  pleasure  or  worry,  overdress 
themselves,  live  in  badly  ventilated  places,  or  do  other 
unhygienic  things  —  and  then  wonder  why  they  are  con- 
stantly subject  to  colds. 


94  HYGIENE 

There  are  many  other  reasons  to  account  for  a  ten- 
dency to  colds.  For  example,  diseased  tonsils 1  and 
obstructions  in  the  nose,  such  as  adenoids  and  certain 
other  growths,  render  an  individual  an  easy  victim. 

The  indirect  causes  which  make  one  liable  to  take 
cold  are  usually  one  or  more  of  the  following : 

Poor  nutrition.  Exhaustion. 

Constipation.  Exposure  to  dust. 

Indigestion.  Bad  ventilation. 

Improper  methods  of  clothing  the  body,  which  usually 

result  in  keeping  the  skin  surface  damp. 
Improper  care  of  the  feet. 
Disease   in   the   nose   or   throat,  such  as  adenoids  and 

diseased  tonsils. 

Neglect  of  bathing  or  improper  methods  of  bathing. 
Congestion  of  the  throat,  as  from  singing,  with  exposure 

afterward. 

Once  knowing  the  causes  of  the  disease  we  call  a 
Prevention  cold,  the  prevention  is  fairly  easy.  Any  one 
of  colds  wno  js  nOf-  jn  delicate  health  can  learn  to 
avoid  colds.  x  No  one  can  afford  not  to  do  so. 

Cool  daily  bathing  increases  the  resistance  of  the 
body.  Such  baths  train  the  blood  vessels  of  the  skin  to 
dilate  and  contract  quickly.  This  is  desirable  in  order 
that  we  may  promptly  meet  sudden  changes  in  tem- 
perature by  increasing  or  checking  perspiration.  The 
practice  of  cool  bathing  is  beneficial  because  it  trains 
the  capillaries,  or,  to  be  more  exact,  it  trains  the  nerv- 
ou3  system  which  controls  them. 

1  For  explanations  of  diseased  tonsils  and  adenoids,  see  pages  104 
and  105. 


COLDS    AND   THEIR   PREVENTION  95 

The  use  of  heavy  underclothing  which  keeps  the  sur- 
face of  the  body  constantly  moist  is  to  be  avoided. 
Linen  or  cotton  mesh  is  better  than  wool ;  the  material 
must  be  such  as  to  allow  evaporation  of  perspiration. 
The  habit  of  bundling  up  the  neck  with  furs  or  other 
wraps  is  a  bad  practice,  except  when  one  is  exposed 
to  very  cold  weather.  Rubbers  and  overshoes  should 
never  be  kept  on  long  at  a  time,  and  heavy  stockings 
need  never  be  worn. 

Bedrooms  must  be  well  ventilated  with  open  windows, 
and  the  bedclothes  should  be  warm  but  light  in  weight. 
The  practice  of  sleeping  out  of  doors  is  desirable  when 
the  climate  and  surroundings  permit.  We  should  be 
careful  that  the  air  of  the  rooms  is  not  too  dry,  as  is 
apt  to  be  the  case  in  steam-heated  houses  (see  page  120). 
Air  that  is  too  dry  affects  the  nose  and  throat  and  is 
likely  to  result  in  catarrh. 

We  should  avoid  sudden  changes  in  temperature  as 
far  as  possible  and  never  allow  ourselves  to  become 
chilled.  Sensible  care  of  the  digestive  apparatus  and 
attention  to  the  bowels  is  most  essential. 

When  one  does  come  down  with  a  cold  in  spite  of 
precaution,  it   should    never   be    neglected.     The    best 
method  of  cure  is  to  go  to  bed  for  a  clay  or   Thetreat 
two  in  a  well-ventilated  room,  take  plenty  of  ment  of 
hot  drinks,  eat  little  food,  and  use  some  sim- 
ple cathartic  (a  drug  which  acts  on  the  bowels).     Wash- 
ing out  the  nose   and  throat  with    hot    salt  water  fre- 
quently is   of    great   benefit.      If    the    cold    does    not 
promptly  yield  to  such  treatment,  call  a  doctor  without 
delay.      Do  not  resort  to  "cold  remedies"  about  which 
you  know  nothing,  and  avoid  such  common  but  foolish 


96 


HYGIENE 


Outdoor  life  obtained 
on  roofs  and  balconies  of 
city  houses  is  far  better 
than  bad  air  in  close 
bedrooms.  Consump- 
tives have  been  restored 
to  health  by  living  in  the 
places  pictured  here. 


A  BALCONY  BUILT  FOR  OUTDOOR  SLEEPING. 


COLDS  AND  THEIR  PREVENTION       97 

practices  as  closing  the  windows,  bundling  up  in  bed- 
clothes, and  applying  poultices  to  the  throat  or  chest. 

The  results  of  frequent  or  neglected  colds  are  often 
serious.  Many  people,  through  bad  methods  of  living 
or  because  of  defects  in  nose  or  throat,  are  Results  of 
constantly  having  colds.  One  .result  of  this  colds 
is  chronic  catarrh.  Much  mucus  is  secreted  from  the 
nose  and  throat,  and  even  the  bronchial  tubes  may  be- 
come involved.  This  means  that  inflammation  is  always 
present  and  that  certain  harmful  bacteria  never  cease 
their  labors.  People  who  suffer  in  this  way  are  likely 
to  have  a  decided  tendency  toward  tuberculosis.  Some- 
times these  catarrhal  conditions  travel  back  through  the 
eustachian  tube  connecting  the  throat  with  the  ear,  and 
serious  trouble  in  the  ear  follows.  Most  cases  of  deaf- 
ness are  due  to  neglected  cases  of  catarrh. 

The  usual  "catarrh  remedies  "  are  either  worthless  or 
only  temporary  in 'the  relief  they  give.  Catarrh  always 
needs  careful  attention  from  a  skillful  physician. 

You  can  now  understand  that  a  person  who  is  con- 
stantly taking  cold  is  in  a  truly  unnatural  condition.  No 
one  can  be  constantly  subjected  to  colds  and  not  suffer 
seriously ;  for  though  a  single  cold  may  seem  trivial,  re- 
peated attacks  predispose  a  person  to  catarrh,  tubercu- 
losis, and  probably  to  pneumonia. 


CHAPTER   XIII 
PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

BY  personal  hygiene  we  mean  those  things  which 
have  to  do  with  the  health  of  the  person,  as  distin- 
Personai  guished  from  that  of  the  town,  city,  or  com- 
and  public  munity.  The  various  states  have  their  state 
boards  of  health  to  care  for  the  health  of  the 
state  as  a  whole.  Cities  and  towns  have  their  local 
health  officer.  Counties  have  their  county  health  officer. 
All  of  this  is  necessary,  because  there  are  many  things 
affecting  health  which  the  individual  cannot  possibly 
control.  An  individual  cannot  prevent  a  city  from 
emptying  sewage  into  public  water  supplies,  but  a  state 
or  city  health  board  can  do  so.  But  each  one  of  us  can, 
to  a  large  extent,  control  our  personal  health. 

We  may  learn  what  foods  are  best  for  us,  may  clothe 
ourselves  pVoperly,  take  the  right  kind  of  exercise, 
breathe  pure  air  and  plenty  of  it,  bathe  properly,  care 
for  our  teeth,  avoid  alcohol  and  tobacco  and  injurious 
drugs,  and,  in  a  word,  live  sensible  and  reasonable 
lives. 

Let  us  briefly  study  some  of  the  things,  or  condition.^ 
which  affect  our  personal  health. 

If  a  careful  physician  were  to  study  the  physical  con- 
dition of  all  the  pupils  in  a  large  school,1  he  would  prob- 

1  The  best  schools  now  employ  a  school  physician  to  examine  the 
physical  condition  of  pupils. 

98 


PERSONAL   HYGIENE 


99 


ably  find  that,  next  to  bad  teeth,  eye  defects  are  the 
most  common.     In  the  first  99,000  children  ex-  E  e  de 
amined  in  New  York  City,  about  33,000  were  fects  are 
discovered  with  eye  troubles  of  various  kinds.  c 

Many  pupils  are  constantly  straining  their  eyes,  with- 
out being  conscious  of  it.     In  order  to  overcome  some 


A  MEDICAL  EXAMINER  AT  WORK  IN  A  PUBLIC  SCHOOL. 

defect,  they  make  a  great  effort  to  focus  on  what  they 
look  at,  much  as  you  would  focus  an  opera  glass.  These 
efforts  will  in  time  injure  not  only  the  eyes,  but  the  nerv- 
ous system  also.  Sometimes  people  have  had  nervous 
breakdowns  simply  because  their  eyes  were  being 
strained  without  their  knowledge.  Many  others  are 
constantly  "  nervous"  for  the  same  reason. 

When  a -pupil  does  not  easily  see  from  his  seat  letters 


100  HYGIENE 

on  the  blackboard,  or  does  not  read  from  his  book  easily 
when  it  is  held  about  fourteen  inches  from  the  eyes, 
when  words  are  blurred,  when  the  eyes  smart,  when  one 


A  B  C 

A.  NORMAL  EYE.    B,  LONG  EYE.     C,  SHORT  EYE. 

Notice  that  the  lines  of  the  image  meet  too  far  forward  in  the  long  eye, 

and  too  far  behind  in  the  short  eye. 

tires  easily  after  reading,  when  reading  makes  the  eyes 
or  head  ache,  —  then  there  is  usually  something  wrong 
with  the  eyesight. 

Our  sight  is  priceless,  and  we  cannot  care  for  it 
too  well.  The  success  of  a  boy  or  a  girl,  not  only  in 
Expert  care  school  but  in  life,  often  depends  upon  good 
for  the  eyes  eyesjght.  When  there  seems  to  be  any 
trouble,  a  person  ought  always  to  see  a  good  oculist  — 
that  is,  an  eye  specialist,  not  an  optician.  An  optician 
is  generally  a  man  who  has  studied  the  fitting  of  lenses 
and  eyeglasses,  but  knows  almost  nothing  about  the 
diseases  of  the  eye.  Any  treatment  of  the  eye  requires 
the  very  best  medical  training.  Remember  that' the  best 
skill  procurable  is  none  too  good  for  your  eyes. 

Many  people  do  foolish  things  when  reading,  and  in 
this  way  injure  the  eyes.     One  ought  not  to  read  very 

The  best  ^ne  Prmt-  The  wa"s  °f  a  place  used  for 
conditions  reading  ought  to  be  tinted  rather  than  white, 
reading  Glazed  paper  is  bad  for  the  eyes.  One  ought 
not  to  face  the  light  or  read  in  the  bright  .sunlight. 
Light  for  reading  should  come  over  the  left  shoulder,  or 


3. * 

•»  r 

if  r 

I  1 

§  w 

g"  -° 


. 

-„     H 


105  HYGIENE 

from  behind  and  above  ;  sometimes  light  from  both  sides 
may  be  arranged  to  advantage.  The  best  light,  when  it 
can  be  so  arranged,  is  north  light.  Hospital  operating 
rooms  and  laboratories  are  generally  arranged  so  as  to 
get  their  light  from  the  north. 

A  steady  light  is  necessary  for  reading  or  doing 
other  eye  work.  Electricity  or  kerosene  is  better  than 
gaslight,  unless  an  Argand  burner  is  used.  Electric 
lights  for  reading  should  have  ground-glass  globes. 
Reading  lights  should  be  shaded  so  that  light  does 
not  enter  the  eyes  from  all  directions.  For  this  same 
reason,  reading  out  of  doors  is  likely  to  be  injurious. 

If  one  reads  in  bed  at  all,  a  well-shaded  light  must 
be  properly  adjusted  at  the  head  of  the  bed,  and  one's 
head  must  be  well  raised.  The  use  of  the  eyes  when 
lying  flat  is  always  hard  on  them.  With  all  close  work, 
the  position  of  the  body  should  be  as  erect  as  possible. 
The  habit  of  placing  the  book  or  paper  on  the  desk  or 
table  and  then  bending  over  it  should  be  avoided. 

What  has  been  said  about  reading  applies  equally 
well  to  any  other  kind  of  eye  work  which  requires  close, 
careful  attention.  Fine,  sewing  is  particularly  severe  on 
the  eyes.  The  object  on  which  one  is  working  should 
not  be  laid  against  a  white  surface  if  that  can  be  avoided. 
Covers  on  reading  tables  should  not  be  white  for  this 
reason. 

Crosscd-cycs  arc  nearly  always  due  to  a  defect  in  sight. 
They  may  often  be  remedied  without  an  operation,  if 
attended  to  early  enough.  If  the  condition  is  neglected, 
the  crossed-eye  is  likely  to  become  entirely  blind.  Red 
lids,  watery  or  red  eyes,  and  granulated  lids  always  need 
medical  attention.  Dirty  towels  and  public  bathing 


PERSONAL   HYGIENE  103 

pools  are  often  the  cause  of  infected  eyes.  The  use  of 
a  public  towel  ought  never  to  be  permitted ;  this  pre- 
caution should  be  taken  particularly  in  schools. 

Children  under  ten  or  twelve  years  of  age  ought  not  to  do 
much  reading  or  other  things  which  require  near  eye  work. 

Until  about  eight  years  of  age,  a  child  is  naturally 
......  i-ii  Use  of  the 

jar-sighted,  and  to  give  such  a  child  near  eye  work   eyes  of 

to  do  is  always  wrong.     Most  of  the  reading  of  young 
children  up  to  about  ten  years  should  be  from  large 
letters  on  the  blackboard  and  from  charts.     Nearly  all  children 
in  our  public  and  other  schools  are  taught  near  work  with  the 
eyes  far  too  early.     This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  eye  defects 
become  more  common  as  we  pass  from  the  lower  to  the  higher 
grades  in  schools. 

Many  schoolrooms  have  the  windows  so  arranged  that  direct 
sunlight  falls  into  the  eyes  of  pupils  during  part  of  the  day. 
This  condition  should  be  corrected  with  tinted  win-  conditions 

dow  shades.     All  parts  of  a  schoolroom  should  re-    in  the 

c  ,.   ,  .  ,     .  schoolroom 

ceive  nearly  the  same  amount  of  light,  and  there 

should  not  be  any  dark  corners.  Green  or  brown  tints  are  far 
better  for  boards  than  the  ordinary  blackboards,  and  the  surface 
should  be  dull,  not  shiny. 

The  amount  of  window  space  for  a  schoolroom,  or  other 
place  where  much  eye  work  is  necessary,  should  be  about  one 
fifth  or  one  sixth  of  the  floor  space. 

It  is  very  important  that  school  books  should  have  rather 
short  lines,  not  over  four  and  a  half  inches  long.  If  lines  are 
longer  than  this,  too  much  rotating  of  the  eye  muscles  is 
required,  and  the  eyes  become  very  tired. 

In  order  of  frequency,  nose  and  throat  troubles  usually 
come  after  eye  defects.  One  cause  of  trouble  is  ade- 
noids, which  are  soft,  spongy  growths  that  sometimes 
appear  up  behind  the  soft  palate.  Adenoids  often  grow 


IO4 


HYGIENE 


Nose  and 
throat 
troubles : 
adenoids 


ADENOIDS. 


in  children  and  young  people.  They  prevent  proper 
breathing  through  the  nose,  so  that  a  person 
who  has  this  growth  breathes  with  the  mouth 
open.  Many  pupils  in  every  school  do  this. 
It  gives  them  a  rather  stupid  appearance, 
prevents  the  full  development  of  the  face  and  lower 

jaw,  causes  crooked  or  promi- 
nent teeth,  and  often  results 
in  a  receding  chin.  Many 
wo/*  cases  of  actual  mental  dull- 
ness are  caused  by  these  ob- 
structions to  breathing. 

Such   children    do   not   get 
enough    oxygen,   their   chests 

Growing  between  the  nose  and    do    not    develop    properly,   and 
the  throat,  they  swell  and  obstruct    ,,  ,,  ,  . 

they  are  usually  more  subject 
breathing.  j  j  t 

to  contagious  and  other  dis- 
eases than  are  those  who  can  breathe  in  the  right  way. 
It  is  much  the  same  as  if  we  should  keep  the  windows 
of  a  room  shut  and  breathe  the  same  air  over  and  over 
again.  We  could  not  possibly  be  healthy  in  such  an 
atmosphere.  vNeither  can  the  child  be  healthy  who 
never  gets  enough  oxygen,  and  who  has  to  keep  his 
mouth  open  in  order  to  get  what  he  does  breathe. 
Holding  the  mouth  open  is  not  a  bad  habit  but  a 
necessity  with  such  a  child.  There  is  only  one  thing  to 
do,  and  that  is  to  have  the  obstruction  removed.  This 
is  neither  dangerous  nor  serious. 

On  each  side  of  the  tongue,  back  in  the  throat,  is  a 
body  called  the  tonsil.    The  tonsils  ought  never 
to  project  much  into  the  throat,  but  they  often 
become  enlarged  and  sometimes  they  nearly  meet.    They 


The  tonsils 


PERSONAL    HVC.IENK 


105 


ADENOIDS  AND  CROOKED  AFTKR  ADKNOIDS  IIAVK  KEEN 

TEETH,      DISEIGI-RIN<;  RKMOVKD       AND       TEETH 

THE  FACE.  STRAIGHTENED. 

By  (X'rmission  of  Dr.  Roy  Robinson. 

easily  become  diseased,  especially  when  they  are  en- 
larged. Large  and  diseased  tonsils  cause  a  great  deal 
of  trouble.  They  obstruct  breathing;  they  make  a 
person  more  susceptible  to  many  diseases,  particularly 
to  tuberculosis;  and  sometimes 
they  become  much  diseased  and 
very  foul.  From  such  tonsils 
bacterial  poisons  are  always 
being  absorbed,  and  the  whole 
body  is  weakened  in  this  way. 
When  one  has  had  many  at- 
tacks of  tonsilitis  (a  form  of 
sore  throat),  the  tonsils  are 

likely  to  be  in  such  condition  that  they  ought  to  be 
removed.  No  one  can  be  healthy  who  has  enlarged  or 
diseased  tonsils. 

Catarrh  is  a  symptom,  not  a  disease.      It  means  that 
there   is   something   wrong  in   the   nose   and 
throat  which    keeps   up  a  constant  irritation 
and  inflammation.     The  cause  must  be  removed  before 


THE  NORMAL  TONSILS. 


Catarrh 


106  HYGIENE 

the  catarrh,  or  symptom,  can  be  removed.  The  cause 
and  the  treatment  of  catarrh  we  have  already  studied  in 
the  chapter  on  colds  (page  97). 

The  nose  and  throat  have  close  connection  with 
the  ears,  and  troubles  in  the  nose  and  throat  often 
Defects  in  accompany  defects  in  hearing.  Leading  from 
the  ears  the  back  of  the  throat  to  the  middle  chamber 
of  each  ear  is  the  cnstacJiian  tube.  It  carries  air  and 
keeps  the  pressure  of  air  within  the  ear  the  same  as 
the  outside  air  pressure.  When  one  has  adenoids  or 
diseased  tonsils,  the  opening  of  this  tube  may  be  cov- 
ered or  disease  germs  may  travel  back  to  the  ear.  In 
this  way  the  middle  ear  chamber  becomes  inflamed  and 
pus  may  form  there.  If  the  opening  of  the  tube  be- 
comes closed,  the  air  pressure  may  be  changed  so  as 
to  injure  the  hearing. 

Nearly  all  cases  of  deafness,  earache,  and  discharge 
from  the  ear  begin  with  some  trouble  in  the  nose  and 
throat.  Such  symptoms  of  ear  trouble  must  never  be 
neglected.  Permanent  injury  is  apt  to  follow,  and 
sometimes  neglected  cases  cause  death. 

If  the  eye,  ear,  nose,  and  throat  received  the  proper 
care,  many  kinds  of  sickness  might  be  avoided.  Kye 
strain,  with  all  the  nervous  troubles  and  headache 
which  result  from  it,  is  caused  by  ignorance  or  careless- 
ness. Frequent  attacks  of  tonsilitis  are  never  necessary. 
They  are  due  to  neglect.  Catarrh  is  almost  universal, 
but  is  quite  unnecessary.  Deafness  can  nearly  always 
be  avoided.  Few  persons  realize  how  much  health, 
efficiency,  and  happiness  depend  upon  the  proper  care 
of  these  organs. 

Indigestion  is  often  indicated  by  a  burning  sensation 


PERSONAL   HYGIENE  IO/ 

in  the  stomach,  and  food  may  be  thrown  up  without 
any  sick  feeling  in  the  stomach.  Those  Digestive 
who  have  this  trouble  can  usually  correct  troubles 
it  by  avoiding  foolish  diet  errors  which  they  can 
easily  discover.  They  should  put  themselves  on  a  very 
simple  diet  and  avoid  overloading  the  stomach.  Sweets 
are  especially  to  be  avoided.  Eating  between  meals 
should  never  be  indulged  in.  Regularity  in  eating  is 
of  great  importance.  Most  people  eat  too  much,  and 
often  of  the  wrong  kinds  of  food.  (See  the  chapter  on 
the  Use  and  Abuse  of  Food,  page  130,  for  more  infor- 
mation upon  this  subject.) 

Free  movement  of  the  bowels  should  occur  once 
or  twice  each  day.  Regularity  is  very  important.  Any 
neglect  in  this  matter  always  results  in  more  or  less 
disordered  health.  Many  cases  of  headache,  skin 
eruption,  yellow  skin,  colds,  conditions  of  mental  dull- 
ness, sleepiness,  and  digestive  disorder  are  due  directly 
to  constipation.  Such  a  condition  may  usually  be  cor- 
rected by  the  free  use  of  drinking  water,  especially 
a  glass  of  hot  water  before  breakfast,  and  by  eating 
plenty  of  fruit,  especially  stewed  prunes,  apples,  figs, 
and  fresh  fruit.  The  habit  of  using  cathartics  should 
be  avoided. 

Where  constipation  is  continually  present,  one  must 
give  particular  attention  to  the  diet  and  make  use  of 
foods  which  leave  a  residue  (that  is,  undigested  material) 
in  the  intestines  and  promote  peristaltic  action.1  Such 
foods  include  corn  bread,  graham  bread,  whole  wheat 
bread,  crackers,  prunes,  apples,  turnips,  cabbage,  and 

1  Peristaltic  action  refers  to  the  contraction  of  muscles  in  the 
walls  of  the  intestines,  which  forces  the  contents  alon«;. 


108  HYGIENE 

celery.  On  the  other  hand,  fine  flours  and  foods  which 
are  digested  without  leaving  much  residue  in  the  in- 
testines must  be  avoided.  Such  foods  include  white 
flour,  milk,  pastry,  prepared  cereals,  and  potatoes.  The 
free  use  of  water  between  meals  is  particularly  valuable 
in  overcoming  constipation. 

Headache  is  not  a  disease,  but  a  symptom  of  disease. 

It    has    many  causes,  among  which  may  be 
Headache 

mentioned  the  following  : 

Eye  strain.  Nervous  exhaustion. 

Constipation.  Poor  nutrition. 

Indigestion.  Jaundice. 

Catarrh.  Rheumatism. 

Neuralgia.  Bad  ventilation  (air  poisoning). 

Eye  strain,  constipation,  indigestion,  and  nervous  ex- 
haustion are  by  far  the  commonest  causes  of  headaches. 
One  ought  always  to  attempt  to  discover  the  cause  of  a 
headache  before  trying  to  treat  it.  Such  causes  are 
usually  not  hard  to  find,  and,  once  known,  the  treatment 
is  usually  successful.  If  the  cause  is  not  easily  dis- 
covered and  remedied,  medical  attention  is  necessary, 
for  headaches  should  never  be  neglected. 

The  common  method  of  resorting  to  "  headache  pow- 
ders "  and  other  drugs,  without  much  thought  as  to  the 
cause  of  the  trouble,  cannot  be  too  severely  condemned. 
Most  headache  powders  advertised  as  cures  contain  coal- 
tar  products,  such  as  acetanilid,  which  are  likely  to  injure 
the  heart  and  do  much  other  harm.  Some  deaths  have 
been  attributed  to  the  use  of  such  patent  medicines. 

It  would  seem  as  though  very  little  need  be  said 
about  the  care  of  the  teeth,  but  such  is  not  the  fact. 


PERSONAL   HYGIENE 


109 


Any  intelligent  person  ought  to  understand  the  neces- 
sity for  keeping  the  teeth  in  good  condition   careof 
as  a  matter  of  ordinary  decency.     Decayed  the  teeth 
teeth  are  repulsive  to  others ;    they  render  the  breath 
foul ;   they  harbor  germs  which   may  result  in  various 

Upper 


KINDS   OF   TEETH 
Incisors 


Canine 


TIME   OF   APPEARANCE 

7th  Month 
9th  Month 
18th  Month 

••  12th   Month 
-  24th  Month 


Molars 


....  12th  Year 
24th  Year 


TEMPORARY  AND  PERMANENT  TEETH. 

diseases  ;  they  lower  the  general  resistance  of  the  body ; 
they  lead  indirectly  to  indigestion. 

The  teeth  should  be  cleaned  twice  or  oftener  daily, 
and  the  use  of  a  powder  or  paste  containing  prepared 
chalk  is  desirable.  Mouth  washes  are  usually  not  neces- 
sary in  normal  mouths.  A  visit  to  the  dentist  at  least 
once  or  twice  yearly  during  the  developing  age  is  desir- 
able, not  only  from  the  standpoint  of  hygiene,  but  as  a 
matter  of  economy  as  well. 

The  teeth  are  covered  with  a  hard  protecting  sub- 
stance called  enamel.  If  this  is  broken  by  cracking 


no 


HYGIENE 


hard  substances  such  as  nuts,  or  by  biting  on  other  hard 
things,  the  teeth  are  almost  sure  to  decay.  Toothache 
is  nearly  always  caused  by  decay  in  the  tooth.  If  the 
condition  is  neglected,  a  cavity  soon  forms,  and  in 
it  food  and  various  bacteria  collect.  Decayed  teeth 
should  never  be  neglected  under  any  condition,  even  if 
they  are  the  first  or  baby  teeth. 

Teeth  seldom  need  to  be  extracted,  and  good  dentists 
rarely  advise  pulling  one  out.     Crooked  teeth,  and  teeth 


PLASTER  CASTS  OK  CROOKED  TEETH  CAUSED  BY  ADENOIDS. 

By  permission  of  Dr.  Roy  Robinson. 

which  protrude  from  the  mouth,  usually  indicate  some 
obstruction  vto  breathing,  frequently  adenoids.  Such 
teeth  can  always  be  corrected,  and  it  is  quite  unneces- 
sary for  any  one  to  have  such  a  deformity.  It  is  a 
common  error  to  think  that  a  child  should  wait  until  he 
is  twelve  or  fourteen  years  of  age  before  having  his 
teeth  straightened.  It  ought  to  be  done  as  soon  as  the 
second  teeth  have  come. 

Sleep  is  a  building-up  process  by  which  new  energy 
is  stored   up   to   replace   that  which  is  more 
or  less  exhausted  by  the  clay's  activities.     It 
is  like  the  charging  of  a  storage  battery.     If  the  supply 


Sleep 


PERSONAL    HYGIENE  III 

of  a  person's  energy  is  drawn  upon  too  much  without 
re-storing,  serious  injury  results.  The  idea  of  drawing 
upon  the  stored-up  energy  of  the  body  for  a  long  time, 
and  then  making  up  the  loss  with  long  hours  of  sleep, 
is  just  as  unwise  as  doing  the  same  thing  with  a  set  of 
batteries.  Batteries,  to  be  kept  in  the  most  useful  con- 
dition, must  be  regularly  and  frequently  recharged,  and 
human  beings  must  do  the  same  sort  of  thing  with 
their  bodies. 

It  is  never  a  matter  of  credit  to  any  one  to  get  along 
with  only  a  few  hours  of  sleep.  Actual  experience  and 
observation  prove  that  most  adults  require  about  nine 
hours  of  sleep.  Until  the  age  of  about  fourteen  chil- 
dren should  have  at  least  twelve  hours  of  sleep,  and 
infants  to  the  age  of  four  or  five  require  fifteen  to  eigh- 
teen hours  daily.  Elderly  persons  require  less  sleep 
than  young  or  middle-aged  people,  or  perhaps  it  would 
be  more  exact  to  say  that  they  are  unable  to  get  as 
much  sleep. 

Boys  and  girls,  and  young  people  generally,  do  best 
with  regular  /tours  of  sleep,  and  late  hours  are  never 
good  for  them.  For  older  people  the  period  for  sleep 
makes  less  difference,  and  the  sleeping  hours  may  be 
arranged  to  suit  their  individual  peculiarities  and  condi- 
tions of  life.  There  is  no  particular  advantage  in  the 
mere  fact  of  early  rising  or  going  to  bed  early.  But  we 
should  remember  that  sunligJtt  is  natures  best  JicaltJi 
giver  and  tonic,  and  we  ought  not  to  spend  in  sleep  the 
hours  of  good  morning  sunshine. 

For  purposes  of  cleanliness,  a  hot  bath  once  or  twice 
a  week  is  all  that  is  ordinarily  required.  But  for  pur- 
poses of  hardening  the  system  against  colds  and  for 


112  HYGIENE 

stimulating  effects,  the  daily  cool  bath  in  the  morning 

is  very  desirable.     In  this  way  the  skin  capil- 
Bathing 

lanes  must  be  trained  to  react  quickly,  not 

sluggishly,  to  changes  in  temperature.     (See  page  94.) 

Some  people  do  not  endure  very  cold  water  well,  and 
it  is  not  desirable  for  all  persons  to  practice  cold  bath- 
ing. Most  invalids,  if  not  all,  are  injured  by  cold  bath- 
ing, for  they  do  not  react1  quickly  and  are  consequently 
apt  to  suffer  all  day  from  depression.  Each  person 
must  determine  by  experiment  what  temperature  of 
water  best  agrees  with  him,  and  must  be  led  largely 
by  the  amount  and  rapidity  of  reaction  which  follows. 
Some  do  best  with  a  cool  bath  at  85°  temperature,  while 
others  enjoy  a  bath  at  65°  or  70°.  Standing  in  hot 
water  while  sponging  or  spraying  the  body  with  cold 
water  adds  to  the  comfort  of  the  cold  bath. 

There  are  some  special  dangers  in  sea  bathing  and 
fresh-water  bathing.  One  ought  never  to  remain  in  the 
Sea  '  water  after  a  feeling  of  chilliness  has  come 

bathing  on>  but  should  take  a  thorough  rub  and  dress 
quickly.  One  should  not  bathe  until  at  least  two  hours 
after  a  meal.  Any  one  who  practices  diving  ought  to 
use  cotton  in  the  ears.  Swimming  is  a  rather  violent 
exercise  and  is  likely  to  strain  the  heart  if  over-indulged 
in.  Many  cases  of  sudden  drowning  are  clue  to  heart 
strain  and  exhaustion. 

Swimming  pools  and  plunges  where  many  people 
bathe  in  comparatively  little  water  are  likely  to  become 
contaminated.  Many  cases  of  eye  infection  (red,  sure 

1  After  the  body  has  been  chilled  by  the  cold  bath,  the  warm 
blood  from  the  interior  flows  back  to  the  skin.  This  return  of  the 
blood  is  called  the  reaction. 


PERSONAL   HYGIENE  113 

eyes)  follow  bathing  in  these  tanks.  Such  places  ought 
to  have  a  constant  and  rapid  change  of  water,  and  even 
then  they  are  not  desirable  when  crowded  with  people. 

Public  bathing  suits  are  likely  to  carry  infection  unless 
sterilized  (that  is,  treated  so  as  to  kill  bacteria)  each 
time  after  using. 

Never  use  a  public  towel.  Many  eye  and  skin  dis- 
eases are  contracted  in  this  way.  The  same  rule  applies 
to  hair  brushes  and  combs. 

It  is  the  duty  of  civilized  man,  as  well  as  his  privilege, 
to  keep  reasonably  clean.  Cleanliness  refers  not  only 
to  the  hands,  face,  feet,  nails,  hair,  teeth,  and  General 
surface  of  the  body  in  general,  but  to  the  cleanliness 
inside  of  the  body  also.  One  cannot  be  clean  unless 
one  observes  great  regularity  in  matters  pertaining  to 
the  daily  toilet.  One  cannot  be  clean  and  practice 
overloading  the  stomach  with  food.  Part  of  such  food 
will  surely  ferment  and  decompose,  and  that  condition 
is  no  better  because  it  is  inside  the  body  than  it  would 
be  outside. 

The  food  that  is  eaten  must  be  clean.     This  means 
that  we  must  know  that  our  water,  milk,  meat,  bakery 
goods,  vegetables,  and  other   foods  are  pro-  clean 
duced  under  clean  conditions  and  are  handled  food 
in  a  sanitary  manner.     It  means  cleanliness  in  all  things, 
not  in  those  things  only  in  which  it  is  customary  to  be 
clean. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  in  many  ways  we  are  far  from 
being  clean.  It  requires  education,  for  example,  to  make 
people  think  about  the  uncleanliness,  to  say  nothing 
about  the  disease,  caused  by  drinking  water  polluted  by 
sewage.  We  are  apt  to  eat,  without  much  thought, 


114  HYGIENE 

vegetables  and  fruit  which  have  been  exposed  to  dust, 
disease  germs,  and  the  like,  because  we  are  accustomed 
to  do  so.  It  is  only  rather  recently  that  anybody  has 
thought  how  filthy  milk  may  be  and  how  much  disease 
can  be  spread  in  that  way.  We  are  now  making  laws 
to  prevent  the  adulteration  of  foods,  but  we  are  very 
slow  in  making  laws  to  regulate  the  cleanliness  of  foods. 

A  nation's  rise  in  importance  in  the  world  is  sure  to 
be  in  keeping  with  its  idea  of  cleanliness.  In  matters 
sanitation  °^  cleanliness,  and  therefore  of  sanitation, 
andciviii-  Japan  has  taught  other  nations  many  a  les- 
son. No  other  army  in  the  world  equals  the 
Japanese  in  healthfulness,  and  this  is  due  absolutely 
and  entirely  to  the  practice  of  clean,  sanitary  principles. 

In  the  long  run,  disease  and  dirt,  as  well  as  health 
and  cleanliness,  are  first  cousins,  so  to  speak.  A  dirty 
people  are  always  unhealthy  ;  a  clean  people  are  usually 
healthy.  The  prevention  of  disease  is  largely  a  matter  of 
simple  but  absolute  cleanliness.  Sanitation  and  hygiene 
are  really  the  practice  of  simple  habits  of  cleanliness. 


A  HEALTHFUL  HOME. 

Where  sunshine,  fresh  air,  and  flowers  are  abundant. 


CHAPTER    XIV 
THE   HEALTHFUL  HOME 

WE  have  studied  the  health  of  the  individual ;  now 
we  must  learn  about  health  in  the  home.  The  home 
is  the  place  where,  more  than  anywhere  else,  health 
should  be  studied.  It  is  just  as  easy  for  children  to 
learn  and  to  practice  the  rules  of  health  as  it  is  not  to 
do  so,  and  the  home  is  the  natural  place  to  get  this 
knowledge.  We  must  realize  that  it  is  very  necessary 
to  learn  how  to  care  for  the  health,  for  by  so  doing  we 
may  avoid  most  of  our  illnesses  and  much  expense  and 
unhappiness. 

A  healthful  home  must  be  located  so  as  to  have  good 
drainage,  that  is,  arrangements  for  carrying  off  rain 
water,  ground  water,  and  sewage.  The  house  should 


n6 


HYGIENE 


have  plenty  of  windows,  and  some  of  the  rooms  at  least 
must  get  direct  sunlight.     Dark,  damp  rooms 

Location 

are  always  disease  breeders.  A  home  must 
have  plenty  of  fresh  air  and  sunshine.  The  rooms 
which  are  used  the  most  ought  to  be  the  sunniest. 


AN  ATTRACTIVE  HOME  OF  A  WOKKIM;  MAN. 
Here  health  makes  wealth. 

Fresh  air  must  always  be  provided  for  the  rooms  in 
which  people  live.  The  air  in  a  poorly  ventilated  room 
in  which  several  persons  are  present  soon 
becomes  foul  with  carbon  dioxide  —  the 
poisonous  gas  exhaled  from  the  lungs  —  and  with  other 
harmful  substances.  The  air  must  be  in  constant 
motion,  for  it  is  only  by  this  means  that  clean,  fresh  air 
can  be  brought  in  and  air  that  has  been  used  can  be 
driven  out.  A  place  must  be  provided  where  the  foul 


Ventilation 


THE    HEALTHFUL   HOME 


Methods  of 
ventilation 


air  can  go  out  of  a  room  and  also  where  fresh  air  may 

enter.     One  must  remember  that  no  more  fresh  air  can 

come  into  a  room  than 

there  is  air    leaving  it 

at  the  same  time. 

The  ventilating  of  a 

house  is  sometimes  a 
difficult  prob- 
lem, but  usu- 
ally it  is  an  easy  matter. 

Open  fireplaces  are  the 

best  of  ventilators,  and 

our    grandparents     de- 
pended almost  entirely 

upon    these    to    secure 

ventilation.  They  serve, 

however,  only  to  carry 

air  out,  and  some  means 

must    be    provided    to 

secure  fresh  air  without 

having  direct  drafts. 


FIG.  i.  —  A  Goon  VENTILATION  PLAN. 


;i 


\ 


\> 


\v 


FIG.  2.  —  A  POOR  VENTILATION  PLAN. 


Grated  ventilators 
near  the  floor  which 
open  into  ventilating  pipes  are  a  good  arrangement  for 
the  escape  of  foul  air.  When  air  exhaled  from  the 
lungs  cools,  it  becomes  heavy  and  falls ;  hence  the 
opening  for  escaping  air  should  be  near  the  floor.  If 
there  are  no  fireplaces  or  special  openings  where  foul 
air  can  escape,  ventilation  must  be  secured  by  the  open- 
ing of  windows  and  doors.  This  is  a  very  uncertain  and 
poor  arrangement;  but  if  one  is  careful  to  open  doors 
and  windows  often  enough  and  to  keep  out  of  the  draft, 


HYGIENE 


FIG.  3.  —  VENTILATION  WITH  STEAM 
HEATING. 


the  air  can  be  kept  pure 
by  this  means. 

One  of  the  simplest 
plans  for  ventilating  a 
house  is  to  have  several 
windows  fitted  with  a 
board  under  the  lower 
sash  so  that  an  opening 
for  air  is  left  between 
the  upper  and  lower  sashes.  Even  with  this  arrange- 
ment, the  outside  doors  should  be  thrown  wide  open  for 
a  few  minutes  every  day. 

If  a  house  is  heated  by  a  hot-air  furnace,  the  fresh  air  from 
the  outside  must  pass  through  a  cold-air  box  to  the  furnace 
where  it  is  warmed,  and  then  it  rises  to  the  various  rooms 
through  the  hot-air  pipes.  The  air  for  such  a  furnace  should 
never  come  from  the  cellar  or  from  the  hall  or  vestibule,  as  it 
sometimes  does.  One  of  the  best  methods  with  a  hot-air 
furnace  is  to  have  the  warm,  fresh  air  enter  a  room  high  in  the 
wall  and  the  foul  air  escape  into  a  flue  at  the  floor  on  the  same 
side.  This  arrangement  is  well  illustrated  in  Figure  i.  Figure 
2  shows  a  method  which  is  much  less  effective  ;  the  air  circu- 
lates through  only  half  the  room  when  the  outlet  is  near  the 
ceiling  and  the  inlet  is  at  the  floor  on  the  opposite  side. 

When  a  house  is  heated  by  hot-water  pipes  or  steam  pipes, 
there  must  be  some  special  plan  for  changing  the  air.  Two 
sets  of  ventilators  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  both  sets  being 
placed  near  the  floor  (Fig.  3). 

In  many  modern  buildings  architects  now  arrange  an 
artificial  system  of  ventilation  by  which  fans  and  blowers 
are  used  to  suck  the  exhausted  air  out  of  the  rooms  and 
to  force  the  fresh  air  in. 


THE   HEALTHFUL   HOME  119 

Houses  in  the  country  which  are  heated  by  air-tight 
stoves  usually  have  no 'regular  means  of  bringing  in 
fresh  air  or  of  discharging  the  old  air.  In  stoves  and 
such  places  one  must  rely  upon  windows  and  ventilation 
doors  for  ventilation.  In  very  cold  weather  the  air  in 
these  houses  is  nearly  always  bad.  This  is  especially 
true  in  the  houses  of  the  poor,  where  they  imagine  that 
they  cannot  afford  to  let  any  cold  air  come  in.  To 
make  matters  worse,  such  houses  are  most  often  lighted 
with  lamps,  which  exhaust  the  oxygen  in  the  air  faster 
than  the  same  number  of  people  would  do.  One  of  the 
reasons  why  tuberculosis  is  common  in  the  country, 
where  one  expects  people  to  be  healthy,  is  because  so 
much  bad  air  is  shut  up  in  the  living  rooms  all  winter 
long. 

Most  of  the  advantage  of  living  in  a  mild  climate 
comes  from  the  fact  that  one  may  be  out  of  doors  and 
may  always  breathe  pure,  fresh  air.  Many  invalids  go 
to  California  to  recover  their  health  and  then  shut  them- 
selves up  in  a  close  hotel  or  in  an  unventilated,  gas- 
heated  room ;  no  one  was  ever  benefited  by  such  a 
change.  In  California  and  some  other  warm  places, 
houses  are  often  heated  with  coal-oil  or  gas  stoves. 
These  are  regular  air  destroyers.  A  gas  stove  ought 
never  to  be  used  unless  it  is  connected  with  a  flue  so 
that  the  fumes  and  impure  air  may  escape  from  the 
room. 

It  is  important  that  air  in  sleeping  rooms  should  be 
constantly  renewed  during  the  night.      "  Night  air,"  so 
much  dreaded  by  many  people,  is  the  only  air  ventilation 
there  is  at  night,   and  is  not   different   from   at  night 
day  air  except  that  it  is  cooler.     Bedrooms  may  always 


120  HYGIENE 

be  easily  ventilated,  for  the  windows  may  be  thrown 
wide  open.  If  a  person  is  properly  covered  in  bed,  he 
need  never  fear  taking  cold. 

A  room  must  not  only  be  well  ventilated,  but  its  air 
must  be  neither  too  dry  nor  too  humid.  The  air  in 
Drvness  and  aPartments  heated  with  steam  pipes  or  hot- 
humidity  in  water  pipes  is  nearly  always  too  dry.  This 
may  be  remedied  by  heating  water  in  an  open 
receptacle  so  as  to  evaporate  it  in  the  room.  When 
many  people  are  crowded  into  a  room,  there  is  always 
an  excess  of  humidity.  This  causes  much  discomfort. 
The  perspiration  on  the  skin  does  not  evaporate  easily 
and  impurities  are  retained  in  the  body.  Humidity  from 
overcrowding  or  other  causes  is  always  injurious  to  health. 

Poor  ventilation   reduces  the  strength    of   the    body 

rapidly.     A  person   living   long  in  a  poorly  ventilated 

house,    store,    or    other    place    is    constantly 

Conse- 

quences of      poisoned.      He  might  as  well  swallow  a  large 


poor  ventiia-  ^ose  of  pOison  every  day  and  expect  to  keep 
healthy,  as  to  try  to  do  so  when  constantly 
breathing  bad  air.  It  is  not  only  because  he  is  self- 
poisoned  in  such  an  air,  but  he  is  breathing  over  and  over 
again  the  germs  of  disease.  No  crowded,  ill-ventilated 
place  can  long  be  free  from  disease  germs. 

The  air  of  the  country  is  always  purer  than  that  of 
cities,  for  in  cities  the  air  is  filled  with  smoke,  gas,  dust, 
Ci  .  and  germ  life.  This  does  not  mean  that 

may  be  un-  every  part  of  a  city  has  such  bad  air,  but  that 
many  parts  do.  In  Chicago  the  strong  Lake 
Michigan  breezes  bring  in  much  pure,  clean  air  and 
drive  away  the  polluted  air  of  the  city.  Kvery  one  who 
has  lived  there  must  have  noticed  what  a  relief  a  change 


THE    HEALTHFUL   HOME 


121 


of  wind  brings,  when  the  suffocating,  hot  southwest  wind 
of  summer  changes  to  the  pure,  invigorating  east  or 
northeast  wind  from  the  lake. 

Thousands  of  lives  are  saved  every  year  by  the  work 
of  many  organizations  which  establish  summer  camps 
for  mothers  and  children  in  the  country  and  Fresh-air 
along  the  shores  of  the  ocean  and  of  lakes,   education 
Not  only  are  lives  saved,  but  this  fresh-air  campaign 


A  FRKSH-AIR  COLONY. 
In  tliis  sanitarium  for  consumptives,  people  sleep  in  the  open  air. 

liy  iKTiiiisMini  »f  Dr.  F.  M.  Pnttvnger,  Monrovia,  Oil. 

brings  happiness,  increased  vigor,  and  a  fresh-air  edu- 
cation to  those  who  have  these  privileges.  When  one 
learns  the  value  of  clean  air,  one  will  never  be  satisfied 
with  foul,  poisoned  air. 


122 


HYGIENE 


Dust  is  likely  to  carry  disease,  and  care  should  be 
taken  that  it  does  not  collect  in  houses.  The  common 
Dust  and  its  methods  of  dusting  and  sweeping  merely 
dangers  spread  the  dust  about  and  do  not  destroy  it. 
When  this  work  is  properly  done,  the  sweepings  are 
burned.  Dusting  should  be  done  not  with  a  feather 
duster,  but  with  a  damp,  soft  cloth  which  will  actually 

gather  up  the  dust  and 
not  spread  it  around 
to  other  places.  Floors 
are  best  swept  by  some 
damp  method.  Damp 
sawdust  and  damp 
newspapers  torn  into 
bits  are  useful  for  this 
purpose.  A  person 
who  is  sweeping  a  very 
dusty  place  ought  to 
wear  some  protection 
over  the  nose  and 


A  TENT  Housp.. 


Bype 


nixxion  of  Dr.  F.  M    Puttcn^iT,  Monrovia,  Cal. 

V 


A  sleeping  porcli  sheltered  by  canvas  curtains 
adjoins  a  small  room. 

mouth  ;  a  damp  towel 
does  very  well. 
Carpets  and  straw  mattings  are  undesirable  because 
they  gather  so  much  dust.  Rugs  which  can  be  fre- 
Hygienic  quently  and  thoroughly  cleaned  and  hung 
furnishings  Up  jn  the  bright  sunlight  are  much  less  ob- 
jectionable. Carpets  in  public  places  are  absolutely 
unhygienic  and  even  dangerous.  Furnishings  should 
be  of  the  kind  that  allows  thorough  cleaning.  Heavy 
upholstery  which  accumulates  dust  and  cannot  be 
frequently  cleaned  and  exposed  to  sunlight  is  most 
undesirable. 


THE    HEALTHFUL   HOME  123 

There  is  no  reason  why  a  home  may  not  be  beauti- 
fully and  even  elegantly  furnished  and  yet  be  strictly 
hygienic.  The  time  is  fast  coming  when  things  which 
are  elegant  but  not  at  the  same  time  clean,  will  not  be 
considered  in  good  taste.  The  elegance  of  many  of 
our  wealthy  homes,  hotels,  restaurants,  steamships, 
churches,  and  cars  renders  cleanliness  impossible.  The 
really  elegant  home  to-day  is  the  clean  one. 

Many  houses  have  been  hotbeds  of  contagion  because 
of  the  furnishings.  Some  houses  harbor  the  germs  of 
tuberculosis  and  other  diseases  for  long  periods  because 
they  can  never  be  thoroughly  cleaned. 

Bedrooms    especially    should    be    simply    furnished. 
Mattresses  should   always   have  some  washable  cover. 
Quilts  should  never  be  used,  for  they  cannot  Bedr  om 
be  washed  and  are   not  clean   after  a  little  arrange- 
use.     Never  carpet  a  bedroom.      Never  use 
an  inside  room  for  a  sleeping  room,  or  indeed  for  any- 
thing  but   storage.     In   cold  climates,   whenever  it   is 
possible,  bedrooms  should  have   open    fireplaces   as    a 
means  of  ventilation.     About  one  third  of  your  life  is 
spent  in  the  bedroom.     It  ought  to  be  made  as  healthful 
and  cheerful  as  possible. 

In  warm  climates  an  outside  sleeping  room  is  most 
desirable.  A  screened  porch  with  shingle  roof  and 
canvas  curtains  furnishes  the  best  sort  of  outside  bed- 
room. Even  in  cold  climates  such  rooms  are  desirable 
for  those  who  need  a  great  deal  of  out-of-door  life. 
Inside  dressing  rooms  ought  to  be  connected  with  these 
porches.  Tent  life  is  often  possible  for  at  least  a  part 
of  the  year,  and  it  is  always  an  excellent  thing. 

Plumbing  must  be  of  a  kind  which  can  be  approved 


124  HYGIENE 

by  a  plumbing  inspector.     Every  bathroom  should  have 
an  outside  window.     An  inside  room  ought 

Plumbing 

never  to  be  used  tor  a  toilet  or  bathroom, 
because  it  can  never  be  well  ventilated.  The  bathroom 
ought  to  be  the  cleanest  room  in  the  house. 

Sewer  gas  is  poisonous  and  must  never  be  allowed  to 
escape  into  a  house.  It  may  be  present  even  when  no 
odor  can  be  discovered.  Great  care  should  be  taken  to 
prevent  leaks  in  sewage  pipes.  Sometimes  such  leaks 
occur  in  cellars  and  are  badly  neglected.  Sewer  gas 
lowers  the  health  and  renders  people  more  likely  to 
take  disease. 

In  the  country  there  are  often  no  sewers.  In  such 
places  the  sewage  has  to  be  carried  into  cesspools.  The 

contents  of  the  pools  often  drain  through  a 

Cesspools 

porous  soil  into  wells  or  streams  used  for 
drinking  water.  Many  cases  of  typhoid  fever  have 
been  caused  in  this  way  (see  page  140).  The  best 
cesspools  are  made  of  brick  cemented  on  the  inside. 
These  may  be  pumped  out  from  time  to  time.  Cess- 
pools ought  to  have  a  ventilating  pipe  connected  with 
them.  They\must  not  be  located  too  near  the  house. 

The  hygiene  of  the  kitchen  includes  not  only  the 
kitchen  and  its  surroundings,  but  everything  that  comes 
The  r  biem  m^°  ^'  ^c  care^u'  housekeeper  will  know 
of  pure  food  where  the  milk  supply  comes  from,  and  will 

visit  the  dairy  or  in  some  other  way  satisfy 
herself  chat  it  is  run  in  a  clean  manner.  She  will  know 
whether  the  water  supply  is  pure  and  safe;  she  will 
make  sure  that  it  does  not  come  from  a  river  or  lake  into 
which  a  town  or  city  empties  its  sewage,  or  from  wells 
into  which  a  toilet  drains,  or  from  a  reservoir  which  is  ex- 


THE    HEALTHFUL   HOME 


125 


posed  to  contamination.  She  will  not  accept  meat  from 
a  market  where  it  is  exposed  to  dust,  flies,  and  infection, 
or  where  it  may  be  treated  with  chemicals  to  prevent  it 
from  spoiling  when  it  is  old.  She  will  not  patronize  the 
unhygienic  grocery  store,  where  fruits  and  vegetables 
are  exposed  for  sale  on  sidewalks  and  other  open  places. 


A  CLEAN,  SANITARY  RAKKRV. 


By  pcrin 


of  Jcvne  mid  Company,  Pasadena. 


She  will  buy  her  bakery  goods  from  clean  bakeries,  not 
from  a  place  which  is  unventilated,  full  of  sewer  gas, 
exposed  to  flies  and  other  insects,  and  handled  by  peo- 
ple with  filthy  hands  and  habits. 

The  kitchen   ought   to   be  completely   screened   and 
kept  free  from  flies  and  other  insects.      It  is   Hygiene  of 
probable  that  flies  are  one  of  the  commonest  the  kitchen 
carriers  of  diseases  such  as  typhoid   and   tuberculosis. 


126  HYGIENE 

The  ice  box  must  receive  particular  attention.  Ice 
boxes  are  often  badly  neglected,  even  in  well-run  houses. 
They  should  be  frequently  cleaned  and  scalded  out. 
Foods  with  strong  odors  will  taint  other  foods  in  the 
ice  box.  Milk  or  water  is  best  kept  in  the  ice  box  in 
bottles  or  covered  jars.  Water  kept  cold  in  this  way 
is  far  better  for  drinking  purposes  than  iced  water. 

Kitchen  floors  ought  to  be  uncovered  and  well  painted, 
or  covered  with  linoleum  only.  The  floor  of  a  kitchen 
should  be  impervious  to  moisture  and  free  from  cracks. 
Kitchen  tables  and  sinks  and  the  woodwork  in  general 
should  also  be  kept  in  the  same  condition. 

Open  plumbing  only  should  be  found  in  the  modern 
kitchen.  Dark,  damp  cupboards  and  storage  spaces 
under  sinks  are  always  bad.  Vermin  of  various  sorts 
accumulate  in  such  places. 

A  kitchen  ought  to  be  a  sunny,  bright,  and  cheerful 
place.  Absolute  cleanliness  in  the  kitchen  is  insisted 
upon  by  every  intelligent  home  maker.  In  olden  times 
the  kitchen  was  the  best  room  in  the  house  and  the 
pride  of  the  neat  housewife.  In  matters  of  domestic 
hygiene  Americans  might  well  follow  the  example  of 
the  beautiful  housekeepers  of  Holland. 

Sickness  sooner  or  later  comes  into  every  home,  and 
Nursing  in  we  should  understand  something  of  how  to 
the  home  meet  it.  For  serious  illnesses  it  is  always 
advisable  to  call  a  trained  nurse,  but  when  one  employs 
no  nurse,  members  of  the  family  can  give  many  little 
attentions  to  make  the  patient  more  comfortable. 

Never  allow  a  patient  to  wear  in  bed  anything  except 
the  lightest  of  night  clothing,  and  under  no  circum- 
stances should  underclothing  be  worn.  The  bed-covering 


128  HYGIENE 

should  be  warm  but  light.  Always  avoid  the  use  of 
quilts. 

In  most  cases  a  daily  morning  sponge  bath  is  desir- 
able. This  can  be  given  under  the  sheet  without  expos- 
ing the  surface  of  the  body.  Tepid  water  followed  by 
an  alcohol  rub  is  best.  Nothing  adds  more  to  a  patient's 
comfort  than  the  daily  bath  when  it  is  given  skillfully. 

Frequent  change  of  position  in  bed  is  necessary.  A 
nurse  ought  never  to  forget  that  a  perfectly  smooth  and 
clean  bed  is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  comfort  of  the 
patient. 

Cool  sponging  with  alcohol  and  water  relieves  feverish 
conditions  wonderfully.  An  ice  bag  for  a  hot  head  is  a 
comfort.  Headaches  are  often  relieved  by  the  applica- 
tion of  hot  cloths.  Pain  is  often  relieved  by  the  use  of 
a  hot-water  bag,  but  care  must  be  used  not  to  burn  the 
patient. 

Foods  for  the  sick  must  be  made  attractive  and 
appetizing. 

Settle  all  questions  for  the  sick  and  do  not  bother 
them  with  deciding  anything.  Do  not  argue  with  them, 
or  notice  anyv  unreasonableness. 

Keep  the  room  quiet  and  do  not  allow  much  conver- 
sation. No  sick  person  likes  to  see  many  visitors,  and 
Care  of  the  even  members  of  the  family  ought  to  be  kept 
sick-room  away  most  of  the  time.  Do  not  allow  un- 
pleasant topics  of  conversation  or  the  discussion  of  other 
cases  of  sickness. 

Keep  the  room  comfortable,  but  do  not  make  the 
common  mistake  of  overheating  it  and  piling  bedclothes 
on  the  patient.  Of  all  rooms  the  sick-room  must  have 
the  best  of  ventilation. 


THE   HEALTHFUL   HOME  129 

The  room  of  a  sick  person  should  always  be  furnished 
as  simply  as  possible.  Carpets,  hangings,  and  uphol- 
stered furniture  are  especially  undesirable.  No  sweep- 
ing should  be  done,  but  the  various  surfaces  should  be 
wiped  with  a  damp  cloth  every  day. 

System  and  regularity  in  all  work  about  the  sick- 
room are  necessary. 

In  the  successful  care  of  the  sick  there  are  many  little 
details  which  must  be  observed,  but  more  depends  upon 
tact,  natural  aptitude,  and  common  sense  than  upon  spe- 
cial education,  although  this  is  most  desirable. 

When  infectious  disease  appears  in  the  household,  the 
patient  should  be  isolated  in  a  large,  airy  room  on  the 
upper  floor.     The  upper  floor  is   to  be  pre-    c 
ferred   because   it    is    farther   removed   from   disease  in 
annoyance  by  street  noises   and  from   dust.   i 
All  well  persons,  except  those  caring  for  the  patient, 
should  be  kept  away  from  the  room.     The  other  mem- 
bers of  the  family  should  usually  be   prohibited   from 
attending  any  school  or  other  public  assembly.     (See 
pages  85  and  169.) 

A  moistened  sheet  suspended  in  front  of  the  door  of 
the  sick-room  will  help  to  prevent  dust  particles  and 
germs  from  spreading  to  other  parts  of  the  house. 
Such  a  sheet  may  be  wet  in  a  bichloride  of  mercury 
solution. 

Personal  clothing  and  bed  linen  should  be  disinfected 
in  the  room  before  being  sent  away.  Napkins,  dishes, 
and  utensils  may  be  boiled  in  the  room  before  being 
sent  to  the  kitchen.  Unconsumed  food  should  always 
be  burned. 


CHAPTER   XV 
THE  USE  AND  ABUSE  OF  FOOD 

THERE  is  no  better  way  to  keep  healthy  and  happy 
than  by  learning  the  importance  of  careful  habits  of 
Health  and  eating.  Most  of  our  headaches,  "  fits  of  the 
digestion  blues,"  and  depressed  feelings  come  from 
the  abuse  of  food.  People  with  healthy  digestions  arc 
rarely  sick. 

Unless  we  take  good  care  of  the  digestive  organs,  we 
cannot  expect  to  have  much  resistance  against  disease. 
People  with  digestive  organs  which  they  either  con- 
sciously or  unconsciously  abuse,  are  far  more  likely  to 
have  typhoid  fever  or  cholera  when  they  are  exposed 
than  are  those  whose  organs  are  normal.  The  digestive 
organs  naturally  secrete  juices  which  are  antagonistic  to 
many  disease  germs.  Abuse  of  these  organs  weakens 
their  powers  of  defense.  Many  colds  are  taken  because 
of  disordered  digestion.  Decayed  teeth  are  more  often 
caused  by  indigestion  and  bad  nutrition  than  by  any- 
thing else. 

It  is  no  disgrace  to  be  sick  when  we  cannot  prevent 
it,  but  ignorance  of  how  to  keep  well  is  rather  worse 
than  any  other  sort  of  ignorance.  One  may  be  justly 
proud  of  vigorous  health,  especially  when  it  is  the  result 
of  careful  study  and  obedience  to  nature's  laws. 

Probably  more  sickness  is  caused  by  the  improper  use 
of  food  than  by  any  other  one  cause.  Most  people  eat 

130 


THE   USE   AND   ABUSE   OF   FOOD  131 

too  much  food.  Overeating  easily  becomes  a  habit. 
When  the  stomach  is  overloaded,  digestion  Fermenta- 
is  retarded  and  some  of  the  food  is  sure  to  tionoffood 
ferment.  Gas  forms  and  also  certain  other  products  of 
fermentation.  The  gas  causes  bloating,  with  uncom- 
fortable sensations.  Sometimes  the  stomach  pushes  up 
against  the  heart  and  causes  palpitation;  many  persons 
imagine  they  have  heart  trouble,  when  indigestion  is 
really  the  cause  of  the  symptoms.  The  fermentation 
products  are  absorbed  by  the  blood  and  circulate  in  the 
body.  Some  of  these  are  poisons.  By  overindulgence 
in  food,  which  may  in  itself  be  harmless,  a  person  may 
thus  poison  himself,  just  as  if  he  had  swallowed  actual 
poison. 

Eating  too  much  starch  or  sugar  food  is  especially 
likely  to  produce  fermentation.  This  is  one  of  the  ob- 
jections to  eating  more  than  a  very  moderate  amount 
of  candy.  Nearly  all  fruits  are  apt  to  ferment,  unless 
eaten  in  moderation.  An  excessive  diet  of  rice  or  other 
cereals,  potatoes,  bread,  or  pancakes  is  sure  to  cause  this 
fermentation.  The  best  kind  of  diet  is  a  mixed  diet ; 
that  is,  one  which  does  not  contain  too  much  of  any  one 
food  principle.  (See  page  33.) 

No  one  can  be  really  healthy  who   constantly  eats 
a  large  amount  of  rich  food.     Many  of  the  wealthy  who 
live    at   fashionable    hotels    and    restaurants  Intem 
suffer  sooner  or  later  from  foolish  habits  of  ance  in  eat- 
eating.     Many  of  them  grow  too  stout,  their  mg 
muscles  are  likely  to  be  flabby,   and  the  habit  of  con- 
stantly eating  a  great  variety  of  rich  foods  often  results 
in  dyspepsia,  kidney  and  liver  troubles,  and  many  other 
disorders.     Intemperance  in  eating  is  as  bad  as  intern- 


132  HYGIENE 

perance  in  drinking.  In  the  end  it  probably  causes  just 
as  much  misery.  Overindulgence  at  the  table  is  a  sign 
of  vulgarity,  even  when  practiced  by  people  of  fashion. 
The  truly  intelligent,  cultivated  person  will  be  satisfied 
with  plain,  nutritious  food  in  moderate  quantities. 

Eating  too  rapidly  causes  many  cases  of  dyspepsia. 
The  importance  of  thorough  mastication  must  not  be 
forgotten  ;  people  who  sufficiently  chew  their  food  rarely 
Rapid  eating  overeat.  The  American  people  are  particu- 
habits  larly  subject  to  this  habit  of  rapid  eating.  It 

is  far  better  to  miss  a  meal  altogether  than  to  eat  it  in  a 
hurry.  Most  cases  of  dyspepsia  are  caused  by  careless 
or  ignorant  habits  of  eating,  and  could  easily  be  avoided. 

Regularity  in  eating  is  most  necessary.  One  ought 
never  to  eat  between  meals.  The  use  of  candy,  soda 
Regularity  water,  pop-corn,  peanuts,  and  other  such 
in  eating  things  is  injurious  because  they  are  abused. 
These  things  are  usually  taken  after  one  has  already 
had  enough  food. 

The  state  of  the  mind  has  a  great  deal  to  do  with 
how  our  different  organs  do  their  work.  Pleasant  com- 
Themind  Panv>  g°°d  cheer,  and  attractive  food  all 
anddiges-  stimulate  the  organs  of  digestion  to  do  their 
best  work.  Unpleasant  surroundings,  unat- 
tractive food,  or  worry  may  cause  an  attack  of  indiges- 
tion. People  hardly  ever  suffer  from  indigestion  after 
a  pleasant  banquet,  even  when  they  overeat.  But  the 
most  frugal  meal  with  a  bad  temper  or  other  unpleasant 
conditions  may  actually  stop  the  process  of  digestion. 

Many  persons  suffer  from  chronic  dyspepsia  simply 
because  they  imagine  that  their  food  will  disagree  with 
them.  When  the  mind  is  directed  into  cheerful  and 


THE   USE   AND    ABUSE   OF   FOOD  133 

healthy  channels  and  common  sense  is  used  about  eat- 
ing habits,  dyspepsia  usually  disappears.  Dyspeptics 
generally  form  the  habits  of  thinking  too  much  about 
themselves  and  of  resorting  to  drugs. 

A  healthy  person  has  a  good  appetite  and  enjoys  eat- 
ing. But  such  a  person  does  not  form  unnatural  food 
habits.  One  should  not  be  fussy  about  food.  It  is  easy 
to  get  into  the  habit  of  thinking  that  one  cannot  eat  this 
or  that  particular  kind  of  food.  With  few  exceptions, 
we  can  eat  any  wholesome  food.  The  less  one  thinks 
about  his  food,  the  better.  One  who  is  constantly  think- 
ing about  his  food  is  a  gonna nd. 

Fads  in  regard  to  food  and  peculiar  diets  ought  to  be 
avoided.  We  hear  much  of  fruit  diets,  vegetable  diets, 
nut  diets,  milk  diets,  and  the  like.  One 

Food  fads 

needs  only  to  remember  that  experience  has 

proved,  and  science  has  demonstrated,  that  a  mixed  diet 

is  best  for  man. 

Sensible  people  will  learn  to  eat  simple,  well-selected 
foods.     But  it  requires  some   skill   to   select  Thewise 
foods  which  are  best  for  us.     The  poor  usu-  selection  of 
ally  eat  too  much  starchy  foods  because  they 
are  cheap.     They  often  waste  money  on  luxuries  which 
have  little  or  no  nutritive  value. 

Many  "breakfast  foods"  with  striking  trade  names 
have  come  into  use.  Most  of  these  are  useful  foods, 
but  are  expensive.  The  same  amount  of  nourishment 
can  be  obtained  from  the  old-fashioned  simple  cereals 
at  less  cost. 

It  is  possible  to  procure  excellent  nutritious  food  at  a 
small  cost,  if  one  will  study  the  question  a  little. 


134 


HYGIENE 


TABLE   OF   FOODS 


Nutritious  Vegetable  Foods 


Inexpensive 

Expensive 

Cornmeal 

CEREALS 

Hominy 
Wheat  Products 
Oatmeal 
Rice 

(  Breakfast  foods 

CEREALS             with  various 
trade  names 

Macaroni 

Dried  beans 

VEGETABLES  = 

Dried  peas 
Potatoes 
Carrots 
Peanuts 

f  Fresh  peas 
VEGETABLES    „ 
I  Fresh  beans 

Parsnips 
Canned  corn 

Bananas 

FRUITS 

Fresh  apples 
Dried  apples 
Dried  apricots 
Dried  peaches 
Dried  prunes 

OTHER        f  Cocoa 
EXPENSIVE       Chocolate 
FOODS        [  Nuts 

\ 

Nutritious  Animal  Foods 


Inexpensive 
Skimmed  milk 
Cheese 
Salt  cod  fish 
Salt  mackerel 
Canned  salmon 

Cheaper  cuts  of  beef  and  mutton 
Pork 


Expensive 
Whole  milk 
Butter  (at  40?  per  Ib.) 
Eggs 

Fresh  fish  (at  30?  per  Ib.) 
High-priced  cuts  of  beef  and  mutton 
Veal 
Lamb 
Poultry 
Game 


THE   USE   AND   ABUSE   OF   FOOD  135 

Expensive  Foods  which  are  Not  Nutritious 

Lobster 

Oysters  (14  equal  i  egg) 

Early  green  vegetables 

Fruits  out  of  season 

Artichokes 

Flavors  and  Relishes 


VEGETABLES 


(Not  classified  as  to  cost) 
Onions        Peppers 
Radishes     Cucumbers 
Celery          Cabbage  FRUITS 

Pickles        Cauliflower 
Lettuce        Chicory 


Strawberries 

Peaches 

Oranges 

Lemons 

Plums 


We  should  remember  that  tea  and  coffee  contain  no 
nourishment  except  the  sugar  and  milk  which  may  be 
added.  On  the  contrary,  they  contain  inju-  Tea  and  cof- 
rious  substances  (caffein  and  tannic  acid),  fee 
which  are  in  fact  drugs.  We  should  hesitate  about 
taking  injurious  things  into  our  stomachs  even  in  small 
amounts,  especially  when  a  habit  may  easily  be  formed. 
Young  people  particularly  should  always  avoid  tea  and 
coffee.  (See  page  149.) 

Meat,  fish,  cheese,  canned  goods,  ice-cream,  milk,  and 
some  other  foods  may  be  the  cause  of  serious  Some  dis- 
sickness.    This  happens  when  certain  bacteria 
grow  in  the  food  and  form    poisons   there,   foods 
These  poisons  are  called  ptomaines. 

Foods  which  have  been  kept  in  cold  storage  should 
be  used  very  soon  after  being  bought.  They  are  likely 
to  spoil  quickly  and  thus  produce  poisoning.  Canned 
goods  should  never  be  kept  standing  in  the  can  after 


136  HYGIENE 

opening.  Such  foods  should  be  emptied  into  a  clean 
dish  at  once  and  kept  in  a  cool  place.  If  a  can  is  puffed 
out,  it  shows  that  the  contents  were  not  perfectly  ster- 
ilized, and  that  bacteria  have  grown  in  the  food  and 
produced  gases  and  poisonous  substances. 

Pork  often  causes  a  serious  disease  because  of  a  para- 
site called  trichina  which  it  may  contain.  This  is  one 
of  the  reasons  why  pork  should  always  be  thoroughly 
cooked  before  being  eaten. 


CHAPTER   XVI 
MILK  AND  WATER  SUPPLIES 

MILK  and  water  supplies  are  of  so  great  importance 
that  they  deserve  a  special  chapter  to  themselves.  We 
are  altogether  too  likely  to  drink  the  milk  or  water 
which  is  offered  to  us  without  any  thought  about  its 
possible  dangers.  Yet  impure  milk  and  impure  water 
are  causing  thousands  of  deaths  every  year. 

Milk  is  the  most  nearly  universal  of  all  foods.  It  is 
the  sole  food  of  infants  and  the  chief  food  of  young 
children.  It  is,  for  many  reasons,  a  very  desirable  food, 
when  pure.  It  is  relatively  inexpensive,  requires  no 
preparation,  and  contains  all  the  food  principles  needed 
by  the  body.  It  is  only  when  milk  is  improperly 
handled  that  we  need  hesitate  to  use  it.  It  is  true, 
however,  that  milk  may  easily  become  one  of  tJie  most 
unclean  and  dangerous  forms  of  food  in  use. 

The  very  high  death  rate  of  children  in   large  cities 
in   summer  is  largely  due  to  the   use  of  impure   milk. 
No  other   article  of  food  is  so  likely  to  be-   Bacteria  in 
come  contaminated  with  disease  germs.      No   milk 
other  food  furnishes  such  a  favorable  medium   for  the 
growth  and  multiplication  of  bacteria.      Many  samples 
of  city  milk  contain  as  many  as  a  million  bacteria  to 
every  quarter  of  a   teaspoonful.     It  is  not  uncommon 
for  city  milk  to  contain  more  bacteria  than  sewage  does. 
This  does  not  mean  that  all  of  such  germs  are  of  the 


138  HYGIENE 

disease-producing  sort,  but  it  does  mean  that  any  such 
milk  is  dangerous  to  health.  No  milk  can  contain  a 
very  large  number  of  bacteria  and  be  clean. 

Dirty  milk  always  contains  bacteria.  Clean  milk  does 
not  contain  many  bacteria.  It  follows,  then,  that  the 
Clean  and  number  of  germs  in  milk  furnishes  an  exact 
dirty  milk  index  to  its  cleanliness.  Sometimes  a  sample 
of  milk  may  contain  vast  numbers  of  germs,  none  of 


.       . 

•  °   •  §  ?o°  9 


-  V_/      ^  ^^O 


u  \J    o 

A,  CLEAN  MILK,  SHOWING  No  BACTERIA.    B,  DIRTY  MILK,  CONTAINING 
MANY  BACTERIA. 

which  are  ofva  disease-producing  sort;  but  when  many 
germs  are  present,  it  is  evident  that  the  milk  has  not  been 
handled  in  a  cleanly  manner.  Whenever  milk  is  care- 
lessly handled,  it  is  very  likely  to  contain  disease  germs. 

Milk  from  a  healthy  cow  is  free  from  germs,  but  by 
the  time  it  is  delivered  to  the  customer  milk  usually 
contains  vast  numbers  of  germs.  It  is  not  a  pleasant 
thought  to  consider  what  carelessly  handled  milk  may 
contain.  Aside  from  the  question  whether  disease  germs 
are  present,  who  really  wants  to  drink  dirty  milk  ? 

Milk  may  be  filthy ;  it  may  be  much  diluted  ;  it  may 


MILK   AND   WATER   SUPPLIES 


139 


be  adulterated.  It  may  be  rich,  fairly  clean,  and  un- 
adulterated, but  contaminated  with  disease  germs.  It 
may  be  free  from  disease  germs,  but  may  contain  other 
bacteria  which  bring  about  changes  that  render  the  milk 
harmful. 

Germs  get  into  milk  from  a  great  variety  of  sources. 
Dust  always  carries  them.  Water  in  which  dairy  uten- 
sils are  washed  may  contain  them.  They  are  Howbacteria 
on  the  hands  of  the  milker,  on  his  clothing,  get  into  milk 
on  the  body  of  the  cow,  and  in  the  milk  can.  In  a 
word,  germs  are  pres- 
ent almost  every- 
where. 

If  a  cow  is  kept  in 
a  dirty  condition,  it  is 
easy  to  understand 
how  dirt  will  reach  the 
milk  pail.  It  seems 
strange  that  people 
will  take  far  less  care 
of  cows  than  they  do 
of  horses.  A  horse  is 
curried  and  kept  fairly 

clean,     bllt     Often     no          The  black  square  represents  the  bacteria  in 

attention  is  paid  tO  the     un-F>asteurize(J  milk.     After  Pasteurization  the 

...  bacteria  are  reduced  to  the  amount  indicated 

condition    ot    a    cow.    by  the  white  square-    (See  page  I42.) 
A  horse  is  driven  in  By  pcrmission  of  Dr.  H.  L.  RUssei. 

public  places  and  the 

owner  is  ashamed  to  have  him  seen  in  a  dirty  condition. 
A  cow  is  kept  in  the  stable  or  pasture  and  the  owner 
is  not  concerned  about  her  appearance  because  the 
animal  is  not  observed. 


140  HYGIENE 

We  are  clean  in  those  things  about  which  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  be  clean.  But  all  of  us  have  to  be  educated 
into  clean  habits.  We  simply  have  not  thought  enough 
about  these  matters.  When  we  think  of  them,  then 
we  demand  a  change ;  but  somebody  must  make  us 
think. 

Most  persons  accept  the  milk  which  is  brought  to 
them  without  question.  They  may  be  fairly  particular 
about  their  meats,  fruits,  vegetables,  and  bakery  goods, 
but  they  merely  accept  milk  as  milk,  without  much 
thought. 

Great  epidemics  of  typhoid  fever  have  often  been 
caused  by  the  carelessness  of  a  single  milkman.  Such 
Typhoid  and  a  case  occurred  at  Stanford  University  a  few 
milk  years  ago,  when  many  students  lost  their  lives 

and  dozens  were  dangerously  sick.  In  this  instance  a 
dairyman  had  washed  his  cans  and  other  milk  utensils 
in  water  which  had  been  infected  with  typhoid  germs. 
This  water  came  from  a  well  and  into  this  well  the 
sewage  from  the  house  had  drained.  Somebody  in  the 
house  was  sick  with  typhoid.  The  ignorance  of  this 
dairyman  ca\ised  many  deaths  and  much  suffering  and 
expense.  This  is  not  an  unusual  case ;  such  things 
have  occurred  over  and  over  again  in  all  parts  of  the 
world. 

Many  cattle  suffer  from  tuberculosis.  Figures  vary, 
but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  from  twenty-five  to  forty  per 
Tuberculosis  cent  of  dairy  cattle  have  this  disease.  It  af- 
and  milk  fects  dairy  cattle  much  oftener  than  it  does 
range  cattle,  and  the  finer  breeds  are  especially  likely 
to  have  it.  This  is  because  they  are  kept  in  badly  ven- 
tilated stables  and  in  close  confinement,  and  because 


MILK    AND   WATER   SUPPLIES  141 

their  powers  of   resistance  are    lowered   by   unnatural 
conditions  of  life. 

In  a  herd  of  selected  cattle,  owned  by  a  wealthy 
gentleman  and  supposed  to  be  unusually  fine,  it  was 
recently  found  that  thirteen  of  the  thirty-two  cows  had 
tuberculosis.  This  was  not  discovered  by  their  appear- 
ance, but  only  by  means  of  the  tuberculin  test.  This 
test  is  a  simple  one  that  any  veterinarian  can  apply. 
All  dairy  cattle  should  be  tested  in  this  way.  Every 
city  and  town  ought  to  require  the  tuberculin  test  and 
make  it  part  of  the  ordinance  regulating  the  sale  of 
milk. 

Tuberculosis  among  cattle  is  dangerous  not  only  be- 
cause it  may  spread  the  disease  itself  to  human  beings, 
but  because  the  milk  from  such  animals  cannot  possibly 
be  healthful  to  drink.  Milk  or  meat  from  a  diseased 
animal  is  always  unhealthful. 

Milk  may  be  the  means  of  spreading  still  other  con- 
tagious diseases.  Diphtheria  and  scarlet  fever  are  some- 
times carried  in  this  way. 

Where  there  is  a  contagious  disease  in  a  family,  no 
bottles   should   be   collected   until   the   disease   is   over. 
Then   all   the   bottles   should   be   thoroughly   Thecare 
sterilized  by  means  of  boiling  water  or  live  of  milk 
steam.     Bottles  of   milk  ought  never  to  be 
left  standing  in  a  sick-room.     Such  bottles  have  some- 
times carried  disease  from  one  family  to  another,  because 
the    milkman    did    not    sterilize    them    before    refilling. 
Even   when   no   disease    is   present   in   a   family,   great 
care  should  be  observed  to  clean  milk  bottles  thoroughly 
as  soon  as  they  are  emptied. 

When  one  cannot  be  sure  about  the  purity  of  milk, 


142 


HYGIENE 


A  HOME  PASTEURIZING  APPARATUS. 


it  is  best  to  Pasteurize  it.1  If  one  does  not  understand 
Pasteurized  how  to  do  this,  it  can  be  boiled.  A  thor- 
^M*-  oughly  clean  milk  should  not  be  either  Pas- 

teurized or  boiled.  Such  methods  are  simply  means  for 
guarding  against  the  consequences  of  carelessness  in 

handling.  Raw  milk  is 
far  more  digestible  than 
Pasteurized  or  boiled 
milk. 

Any  disagreeable  odor 
or   flavor   in   milk   indi- 
cates that  it  is  not  clean. 
Clean  milk  kept  on  ice 
will    remain    sweet    for 
several  days.    Any  sedi- 
ment in  the  pan  or  bottle  is  also  an  indication  of  dirty 
milk. 

There  are  a  few  things  that  everybody  ought  to  know 
Some  dairy  about  the  proper  handling  of  milk  supplies, 
rules  whether  they  are  in  the  dairy  business  or  not. 

The  most  important  of  these  things  are  as  follows: 

The  cows  must  be  kept  clean. 

The  barn  must  be  kept  clean. 

The  floors  of  the  stables  must  be  moisture  proof. 

Gutters  behind  the  stalls  should  be  made  of  cement  and  must 

have  proper  drainage. 

Manure  must  not  be  allowed  to  accumulate. 
Wooden  barns  must  be  frequently  whitewashed  inside. 
Dust  must  be  avoided  during  milking  time. 

1  Milk  may  be  Pasteurized  by  placing  tlie  bottles  containing  it 
in  water,  and  heating  this  to  160"  (Fahrenheit).  The  water  must 
then  be  kept  at  this  temperature  for  about  twenty  minutes. 


MILK   AND   WATER   SUPPLIES 


A  SANITARY  BOTTLING  ROOM. 

Here  milk  is  kept  pure  by  absolutely  clean  handling.     Notice  the  costumes 
of  the  men. 

Used  by  courtesy  of  Brooksidc  Farms. 


The  milk  house  must  be  separate  from  the  barn  and  used  for 

no  other  purposes. 

It  must  be  clean  and  properly  screened. 
The  water  supplies  must  be  pure. 
There  must  be  no  chance  for  sewage  contamination. 
Every  milker  should  have  a  clean  milking  suit  which  is  used 

for  nothing  else. 

He  should  keep  his  hands  absolutely  clean. 
He  must  be  in  good  health  and  not  associate  with  any  person 

sick  with  a  contagious  disease. 
The  milk  bottles  and  all  utensils  must  be  kept  clean.     Scalding 

water  or  live  steam  should  be  used  for  this  purpose. 
The  milk   pail  should  have  a  rather  small  opening  in  the  top, 


144  HYGIENE 

and  this  should  be  covered  with  clean  sterile  cheese  cloth  or 

gauze.     Through  this  cloth  all   milk  should   strain  as   it   is 

being  milked  from  the  cow. 
Flies  must  be  kept  away  from  milk.     They  often  carry  disease 

germs,  especially  those  of  typhoid  and  tuberculosis. 
All  small  animals  must  be  kept  away  from  the  dairy  premises. 
Milk  must  be  quickly  cooled  to  about  5^0°  or  less  and  kept  so 

until  used. 
All  cows  must  be  tested  for  tuberculosis  by  a  properly  qualified 

person. 

There  is  no  reason  why  we  should  not  demand  pure 
milk.  We  shall  never  get  it  until  we  make  the  demand. 
The  pure  Never  buy  milk  unless  you  know  how  it  is 
miikprobiem  handled.  Many  towns  and  small  cities  have 
already  studied  the  milk  problem  and  have  succeeded 
in  their  demands  for  pure  milk.1  Any  town,  village,  or 
city  can  have  pure  milk  supplies  just  as  soon  as  its 
residents  become  educated  to  the  idea.  Pure  milk  de- 
pots have  been  established  in  many  cities,  where  the 
poor  may  always  get  clean,  safe  milk  at  a  moderate 
price.  We  should  not  be  unwilling  to  pay  a  fair  price 
for  pure  mMk.  The  demand  for  cheap  milk  is  one 
cause  of  adulteration  and  of  carelessness  in  the  han- 
dling of  milk.  Cheap  milk  is  never  pure  milk. 


The  dangers  from  using  impure  water  have  been 
mentioned  in  several  chapters,  but  we  may  now  sum  up 
all  these  statements  and  add  a  few  others. 

River  water  is  rarely  pure,  because  towns  and  cities 

1  Tlie  city  of  Rochester,  N.V.,  recently  made  such  a  study,  with 
wonderful  results. 


MILK    AND   WATER    SUPPLIES  145 

on   the  banks  frequently  empty  their  sewage  into  the 
rivers.       Most    cases    of    typhoid    fever    are  Different 
caused  in  this  way  (see  page  85).  kinds  of  wa- 

Well  water  is  often  impure,  because  sewage 
sometimes  drains  into  the  well.     Wells  should  be  located 
so  that  this  cannot  occur. 

Lake  water  is  frequently  polluted  with  sewage.  Even 
as  far  out  as  five  miles  from  shore,  Lake  Michigan 
water  was  found  polluted  with  Chicago  sewage  before 
the  drainage  canal  was  opened. 

Spring  ivater  and  artesian  ivells  furnish  the  purest 
kinds  of  water,  because  the  water  comes  from  a  depth 
where  bacteria  are  not  present. 

Sometimes  mountain  or  other  water  is  conducted  into 
rcscnwirs  for  storage.  Such  reservoir  water  may  be 
dangerous  to  health,  in  case  it  comes  from  streams 
which  are  polluted  from  slops  dumped  on  the  banks, 
from  sewage  draining  into  them  from  houses,  from 
campers  along  the  banks  who  may  be  sick  with  typhoid, 
or  in  other  ways.  One  of  the  duties  of  the  state 
boards  of  health  is  to  protect  streams  and  lakes  from 
pollution. 

Most  of  the  niters  in  use  are  worthless.  They  take 
the  dirt  out  of  the  water  and  make  it  look  pure  and 
clean,  but  they  do  not  remove  disease  or  , 

Filters 

other  germs.  It  is  far  better  not  to  use  any 
filter  than  a  poor  one,  for  these  actually  serve  to  collect 
typhoid  or  other  bacteria.  The  best  filters  for  use  are 
the  Chamberlain,  Pasteur,  and  Berkefeld.  These,  with 
proper  care,  are  safe,  and  do  remove  all  danger.  The 
water  in  such  filters  has  to  pass  through  a  cylinder  of 
porcelain.  But  to  insure  safety  even  with  these  kinds 


146  HYGIENE 

of  filters,  they  must  be  cleaned  every  day  with  a  brush, 
and  placed  in  boiling  water  for  about  ten  minutes  once 
or  twice  a  week. 

Very  large  filters  are  sometimes  used  to  filter  the 
entire  city  water  supply.  These  are  sand  filters  which 
city  fiitra-  cover  a  large  area  of  ground.  The  water  is 
tion  of  water  fjrst  allowed  to  settle;  then  it  is  filtered 
through  many  layers  of  sand  and  gravel,  and  stored  in 


FILTER  BEDS  OF  THE  INDIANAPOLIS  WATERWORKS. 

Here  the  water  from  White  River  is  purified  by  filtering  through  layers 
of  sand,  gravel,  and  perforated  tile. 

great  reservoirs.  Since  Philadelphia  introduced  such  a 
system,  typhoid  fever  has  been  nearly  wiped  out  in  the 
parts  of  the  city  receiving  the  filtered  water,  while  in 
the  sections  where  unfiltered  river  water  is  used,  there 
is  still  much  typhoid. 

When  we  cannot  be  sure  that  water  is  pure  it  ought 
always  to  be  boiled  for  twenty  minutes. 


MILK   AND   WATER   SUPPLIES  147 


THE  CHICAGO  DRAINAGE  CANAL. 

To  avoid  contamination  of  water  supplies,  this  long  canal  was  built  to  carry  off 
the  city's  sewage.     This  section  of  the  canal  is  cut  through  solid  rock. 

The  disposal  of  sewage  is  a  very  difficult  problem  in 
large  cities.      Some  places  make  use  of  sewer  farms. 
Here  the  sewage  is  spread  over  the  ground   Disposal  of 
and  serves  as  a  fertilizer.     The  bacteria  are   sewagft 
exposed  to  the   sunlight,  which  in  time   kills    most  of 
them.     The  sewage  is  decomposed,  and  soon  changes  to 
harmless  gases  which  pass  off  in  the  air,  and  to  chemical 
substances  which  mix  with  the  earth  and  fertilize  it. 

The  only  real  danger  in  sewer  farms  is  when  garden 
truck,  such  as  lettuce  and  radishes,  is  raised  on  them. 
Such  foods  may  easily  become  polluted,  and  may  carry 
typhoid  germs.  On  the  Pasadena  (California)  sewer 
farm  they  raise  walnuts  and  alfalfa,  which  is  profitable 
and  perfectly  safe. 

When  sewage  is  drained  into  rivers  or  lakes,  such 
water  is  always  dangerous  to  drink.  Aside  from  this, 
who  really  wants  to  drink  diluted  sewage? 

Some  cities  use  what  are  called  septic  tanks  for  the 
collection  of  sewage.  Here  it  is  decomposed  and  be- 
comes comparatively  harmless. 


CHAPTER   XVII 
STIMULANTS  AND  NARCOTICS 

THE  Latin  word  stimulus  means  goad.  The  goad  was 
used  in  driving  oxen  from  remote  periods  even  down  to 
What  a  the  times  of  our  grandfathers.  It  consisted 
stimulus  is  of  a  long  stick  with  a  sharp  metal  brad  in  the 
end.  The  lazy  or  fatigued  ox,  when  prodded  with  this 
stimulus,  would  quicken  his  pace,  throwing  the  weight 
into  the  yoke,  and  would  thus  increase  his  work  in  a 
given  time.  Stimulus  has  also  had  for  many  years 
another  but  similar  meaning.  In  this  sense  it  is  ap- 
plied to  any  influence  which  will  cause  a  living  tiring  — 
organ,  tissue,  or  cell — to  increase  its  work. 

Mechanical  stimuli  are  all  similar  in  action  to 
the  ox  goad.  Heat,  light,  and  electricity  are  all 
forms  of  stiWili.  Most  of  these  stimuli  act  from  the 
outside. 

There  is  still  another  kind  of  stimulus  that  usually 
acts  from  the  inside,  though  not  necessarily  so,  —  the 
chemical  stimulus.  These  chemical  stimuli  cause  in- 
creased activity  or  work  when  they  come  in  contact 
with  living  tissues.  Common  salt  is  an  example.  A 
little  salt  applied  to  a  fresh  bit  of  nerve  and  muscle 
tissue  from  a  frog's  leg  makes  it  twitch.  Salt  stimulates 
the  heart,  which  is  only  a  large,  hollow  muscle  connected 
with  nerves.  Many  chemical  stimuli  are  always  dis- 

148 


STIMULANTS   AND    NARCOTICS  149 

solved  in  the  blood  and  lymph.     Some  also  form  part  of 
the  different  secretions  in  the  body. 

There  are  many  chemical  stimuli  which  come  from 
without,   but  which    influence    the    body   in    much   the 
same  way.     As  examples,  we  have  strychnine  t   T. 
which  is  used  as  a  medicine  and  which  stimu-  stimulant 
lates  action  of  the  heart  through  the  nervous  1: 
system ;  and  caffcin,  which  is  always  present  in  coffee, 
and  is  also  sometimes  used  as  a  medicine.     Caffein  is  in 
constant  use  as  a  beverage.     When  a  person  drinks  a 
morning  cup  of  coffee,  he  is  quite  likely  to  think  only 
of  its  delicious  aroma,  its  amber  color,  and,  if  he  adds 
sugar  and  cream  to  it,  he  may  think  of  it  as  a  food. 
But  he  should  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  it  also  con- 
tains a  drug  which  is  certain  to  influence  his  nervous 
system  as  a  stimulus.     Tea  also  contains  a  drug,  called 
tannic  acid. 

One  cup  of  moderately  strong  coffee,  well  diluted  with 
cream  and  sugar,  will  have  only  a  slight  drug  action. 
But  several  cups  of  strong  black  coffee  will  The  coffee 
have  a  decided   influence   upon   the  nervous  habit 
system.     If  a  person  comes  to  depend  upon  his  two  or 
three  cups  of  strong  coffee  at  breakfast  to  keep  him 
going  until  noon,  and  another  cup  or  two  at  lunch  to 
keep  him  stimulated   during  the  afternoon,  he  is  just 
as  surely  the  victim  of  a  drug  Jiabit  as  is  the  man  who 
takes  morphine  or  cocaine  for  the  same  purpose. 

Chocolate  and  cocoa,  on  the  other  hand,  contain  some 
nourishment  and  practically  no  drug.  Whether  a  person 
ought  ever  to  drink  either  coffee  or  tea  is  a  question  he 
must  settle  for  himself.  Although  a  moderately  strong 
cup  of  coffee  or  tea  does  not  contain  much  of  the  drug, 


150  HYGIENE 

one  must  remember  that  there  is  always  the  possibility 
of  forming  a  coffee  or  tea  habit.1 

In  an  emergency  strong  coffee  may  be  a  valuable  and 
necessary  stimulant.  It  will  not,  however,  generally  act 
as  a  stimulus  to  the  person  who  habitually  drinks  it. 

When  the  ox  is  fatigued  with  several  hours  of  work, 

and  his  driver  begins  to  prod  him  with  the  goad,  it  is 

easy  to  see  that  the  ox  receives  no  food  from 

gives  no         this    goad.       His    slackened    pace    probably 

added  means  that  he  needs  rest,  but  instead  of  rest 

strength 

he  gets  the  stimulus.  The  ox  will  make  re- 
newed efforts  and  work  beyond  his  strength.  But  the 
fatigue  which  follows  will  be  much  greater,  and  he  will 
require  more  time  for  recovery  than  would  have  been 
required  if  he  had  been  given  rest.  With  rest  and  food 
the  body  stores  up  energy. 

It  is  just  the  same  with  all  artificial  stimuli  of  which 
many  people  make  use.  A  man  may  drive  Jiimself  to 
increased  work  by  the  use  of  coffee  or  tea  or  some  other 
drug,  but  he  will  always  be  left  more  exhausted  and  will 
require  more  time  to  rest  than  if  he  had  not  overstimu- 
lated  himself. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  explain  what  a  stimulus  (or 
stimulant)  is,  how  it  may  be  used  and  how  abused.  We 
see  that  it  adds  no  strength  to  the  body.  It  does  some- 
times enable  the  body  to  do  an  increased  amount  of 
work  for  a  short  time.  From  this  overexertion  there  is 
always  a  reaction,  and  increased  time  must  be  allowed 
for  rest.  Stimuli  such  as  coffee,  tea,  and  strychnine  are 
useful  to  the  body  only  in  emergencies.  Coffee  and  tea 

1  The  French  avoid  strong  coffee  in  their  common  use  of  cafi  an 
lait  —  a  little  coffee  in  a  cup  filled  with  hot  milk. 


STIMULANTS   AND    NARCOTICS 


Alcohol  is 
not  a 
stimulant 


are  pleasant  drinks,  but  are  neither  necessary  nor  even 
useful  under  ordinary  conditions. 

Narcotics    are  drugs  which    cause  a  dulling   of   the 
senses.     They  lessen  the  action  and  strength  What  a 
of  the  cells  of  the  body.     Examples  of  nar-  narcotic  is 
cotics  are  alcohol,  opium,  morphine,  cocaine,  cJilorofonn, 
and  ether. 

Alcohol  is  usually  thought  of  as  a  stimulant,  but  the 
best  physiologists  now  agree  that  it  is  not  a  stimulant 
even  in  small  amounts. 
It  is  a  true  nar- 
cotic. It  pro- 
duces a  dulling 
effect  upon  the  cells  and 
tissues  of  the  body.  Al- 
cohol at  first  causes  excite- 
ment and  seems  to  act  as  a 
stimulus.  Why,  then,  is  it 
really  a  narcotic?  We  shall 
try  to  answer  this  question. 

The  different  actions  of  the  body  are  under  the  con- 
'trol  of  the  nervous  system,  in  much  the  same  way  that 

a  spirited  team  of  horses  is  under  the  control 

r     .,          ,   .  ^,          ,   •  u-      The  effect 

of    the    driver.      The   driver   may  urge   his  Of  alcohol  on 

horses  forward  with  the  whip  and  yet  control  the  nervous 

.  .  system 

them  by  keeping  them  in  check  with  the  reins. 
Or  he  may  slacken  his  reins,  and  again  the  team  rushes 
forward.  Either  method  increases  the  work  of  the  team ; 
but  in  one  case  he  keeps  perfect  control  of  the  horses, 
and  in  the  other  he  practically  loses  control.  A  careless 
bystander  watching  the  team  might  easily  see  no  dif- 
ference in  the  increased  spirit  of  the  horses  in  the  two 


THK  PROPORTION  OK  ALCOHOL  IN 
WHISKY,  WINE,  AND  BKER. 


152  HYGIENE 

cases.  A  more  careful  observer  would  realize  that  in 
the  second  case  the  driver  had  slackened  his  reins  and 
released  his  control.  Alcohol  has  the  effect  of  slacken- 
ing the  reins  of  control  which  each  person  ought  to  hold 
upon  himself. 

At  first,  when  a  person  drinks  whisky  or  other  strong 
alcoholic  beverage,  he  seems  to  be  stimulated.  He  thinks 
so  himself,  and  it  appears  so  to  others.  What  he  has 
really  done  is  to  loosen  the  reins;  and  finally  the  team 
runs  away.  As  more  and  more  of  the  drink  is  taken, 
the  excitability  passes  off  and  the  drinker  becomes  dull 
and  stupid.  At  last,  control  of  the  ivill  is  entirely  lost, 
and  we  say  the  person  is  drunk.  A  few  more  drinks 
are  taken  and  the  man  loses  control  of  his  muscles;  his 
gait  has  become  unsteady;  he  staggers,  falls,  and  drops 
off  into  a  drunken  stupor. 

Such  a  man  is  as  surely  under  the  influence  of  a  nar- 
cotic as  if  he  had  taken  chloroform  or  ether.  He  may 
freeze  to  death  or  be  run  over  by  a  train  without  know- 
ing anything  of  his  danger. 

We    have    learned   in    our  study  of  physiology  that 

carbon   dioxiae  is  always  given  off  from  the  lungs  in 

breathing  in  the  same  way  that  it  is  given 

Alcohol  and  . 

carbon  off  from  a  lighted  lamp  or  candle.     It  is  a 

dioxide  in  waste  product  of  combustion  or  burning,  and 
the  body  .  . 

is    poisonous   to    man.      A    badly   ventilated 

room  containing  many  people  soon  becomes  foul  with 
this  poisonous  gas.  When  a  person  has  taken  large 
doses  of  alcohol  or  opium  or  other  narcotics,  he  does 
not  get  rid  of  a  sufficient  amount  of  carbon  dioxide 
from  his  body.  He  is  poisoned,  just  as  he  would  be  in 
a  close  room  filled  with  people. 


STIMULANTS   AND    NARCOTICS  153 

The  drinker's  face  always  becomes  flushed.  This  is 
only  an  indication  of  what  is  taking  place  all  over  his 
body.  The  minute  blood  vessels  in  the  skin 

Alcohol 

become  dilated  ;  much  blood  conies  to  the  sur-  makes  the 
face,  and  the  individual  has  a  pleasant  sensa-  body  lose 

heat 

tion  of  warmth.  But  this  is  very  misleading. 
His  skin  surface  feels  warm,  but  he  is  actually  losing 
heat  (see  page  32).  A  man  in  this  condition  takes  in 
less  oxygen  and  gives  out  less  carbon  dioxide.  So  you 
see  he  is  actually  making  less  heat  tlian  usual  and  losing 
more.  His  temperature  is  less  than  that  of  a  normal 
person.  A  drunken  man  easily  freezes  for  this  reason. 

No  one  was  ever  made  warmer  by  an  alcoholic  drink 
on  a  cold  day. 

Nansen,  the  great  Arctic  explorer,  would  not  allow 
the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  among  his  men  for  just  these 
reasons,  and  they  endured  exposure  remarkably  well. 
Dr.  Grenfell  has  had  the  same  experience  in  his  work 
among  the  fishermen  in  Labrador.  Experienced  moun- 
tain climbers  in  high  altitudes  cannot  be  induced  to  take 
even  a  small  dose  of  alcoholic  drinks. 

Any  activity  that  requires  strong  muscles  is  hampered 
by  the  use  of  alcohol.     Everybody  knows  that  athletic 
coaches  and  trainers  never  permit  their  men  Action  of 
to  use  any  drinks  containing  alcohol.     A  foot-  alcohol  upon 

.    .  •  the  muscles 

ball    player    in   training    is    never  allowed  to 

take  even  a  glass  of  beer.  Many  a  man  has  been  put 
off  a  team  for  violation  of  this  rule.  In  a  long-distance 
swimming  race  in  Chicago,  a  man  who  was  drowned 
was  accustomed  to  moderate  drinking,  and  drank  just 
before  entering  the  water.  Experiments  in  laboratories 
prove  absolutely  that  alcohol  even  in  small  amounts 


154  HYGIENE 

causes  a  loss  of  muscular  strength  and  leads  to  fatigue 
and  to  decreased  quickness  of  action. 

There  are  very  good  reasons  to  believe  that  alcohol 
decreases  the  body's  powers  to  resist  disease.  If  this  is 
The  relation  true>  the  practice  of  giving  alcohol  in  such 
of  alcohol  diseases  as  typhoid  fever  and  tuberculosis 
would  seem  to  be  a  great  mistake.  It  is  a 
well-known  fact  that  people  accustomed  to  heavy  drink- 
ing nearly  always  die  when  stricken  with  pneumonia. 
Even  moderate  drinkers  have  less  chance  of  recovery 
than  those  who  never  use  alcohol.  Surgeons  know  that 
people  who  do  not  use  whisky  or  other  alcoholic  drinks 
usually  rally  better  from  operations  than  drinkers  do. 

Even  men  who  believe  in  the  moderate  use  of  alcohol 
advise  against  it  until  the  brain  work  of  the  day  is  over. 
Theinflu-  The  amount  and  quality  of  work  which  a 
ence  of  aico-  man  can  jo  in  six  hours,  for  example,  is 

hoi  on  the 

brain  never    increased    by    the    use    of    alcoholic 

drinks.  Some  recent  experiments  prove  that  the  actual 
important  substance  of  the  nerve  cells  of  the  brain  is 
exhausted  by  the  use  of  alcohol. 

"  Alcohol  "is  probably  the  greatest  of  all  breeders  of 
crime,  disease,  degeneracy,  and  poverty.  It  not  only 
Alcohol  and  robs  the  nation  of  an  enormous  amount  of 
crime  wealth,  but  in  return  it  contributes  nothing 

to  its  strength." 

If  the  abuse  of  alcohol  merely  resulted  in  a  diseased 
stomach,  a  diseased  liver,  and  some  other  diseased 
organs,  it  would  not  be  a  very  terrible  enemy  of  man- 
kind. Dyspepsia  does  all  this  and  more.  Hut  when 
one  considers  the  unhappiness,  cruelty,  poverty,  crime, 
and  —  last  and  worse  than  all  else — the  effect  upon  the 


STIMULANTS   AND   NARCOTICS  155 

innocent  children  of  drinking  parents,  little  more  need 
be  said  about  the  drink  evil. 

When  we  stop  to  think  of  the  misery  which  is  caused 
in  the  world  by  the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks,  it  is  clear 
that  no  one  of  us  ought  ever  to  put  himself  in  the  way 
of  forming  a  habit  which  will  add  to  that  misery. 

The  use  of  tobacco  in  its  various  forms  is,  of  course, 

an   unnecessary  habit.     It  does  no  good  to 

Tobacco 
any  one,  and  often  does  much   harm.     It  is 

really  a  drug  habit. 

The  use  of  cigarettes  is  increasing  rapidly  every  year. 
They  are  harmful  in  many  ways.  They  generally  con- 
tain one,  and  only  one,  really  injurious  sub-  cigarette 
stance  —  tobacco.  They  are  injurious  princi-  sm°king 
pally  because  they  furnish  an  easy  smoke  for  a  beginner, 
and  because  they  are  usually  used  to  great  excess. 
They  are  harmful  also  because  cigarette  smokers  nearly 
always  inhale  the  smoke  and  thus  absorb  much  poison. 
One  of  the  worst  features  about  cigarette  smoking  is 
that  their  use  often  leads  boys  into  bad  company.  Other 
bad  habits  are  likely  to  go  with  cigarette  smoking.  The 
whole  point  is  this  :  if  we  wish  to  -make  onr  life  and 
zvork  as  effective  as  possible,  then  we  ought  to  avoid  t/iose 
tilings  wJiicJi  are  sure  to  lessen  this  efficiency. 

Some  people  smoke  with  little  injury  to  themselves, 
but  most  people  would  be  far  better  off  without  tobacco. 
No  boy  should  ever  use  tobacco  in  any  form.  He  is  sure 
to  be  injured  by  its  use.  Employers  very  generally  look 
with  much  suspicion  upon  a  boy  who  uses  tobacco. 
Frequently  this  habit  indicates  that  the  boy  has  a  weak 
character.  It  is  hard  enough  to  meet  life  successfully, 
without  assuming  any  habits  which  make  it  still  harder. 


CHAPTER    XVIII 
THE   USE  AND  ABUSE  OF   DRUGS 

WE  have  already  studied  some  of  the  causes  of  dis- 
ease, and  have  considered  the  natural  defenses  of  the 
body.  We  must  now  consider  the  uses  of  drugs  and 
also  some  of  their  abuses.  Thousands  of  medicines  have 
gradually  come  into  use,  and  many  of  them  are  either 
utterly  useless  or  actually  harmful  to  health. 

Early  races  of  people  believed  many  things  about 
the  cause  and  cure  of  disease  which  seem  absurd  to  us 
Medicine  to-day.  Even  many  existing  races  practice 
and  super-  superstitious  rites  in  much  the  same  way  that 
the  ancients  did.  The  Indian  medicine  man, 
when  he  goes  through  his  weird  practices,  his  chants, 
and  various  strange  antics,  is  only  imitating  the  customs 
of  more  civilized  races  of  ancient  times.  In  some 
isolated  parts  of  Japan,  tigers'  bones  are  ground  up  for 
medicine,  with  the  idea  that  they  will  make  a  person 
strong.  In  some  regions  in  China  the  people  bore 
holes  in  the  sick  to  let  the  Demon  of  Sickness  out. 

Even  here  in  our  own  civilized  America  some  people 
fancy  that  gum  camphor  carried  in  the  pockets  will 
ward  off  contagious  diseases;  that  an  aluminum  ring  on 
the  finger  will  cure  rheumatism;  that  "electric  belts," 
in  which  there  is  no  electricity,  will  give  strength  to  the 
nerves.  They  think  that  a  gold  ring  rubbed  on  a  sty 
will  cure  it ;  that  a  piece  of  brown  paper  over  the 

156 


THE   USE   AND   ABUSE   OF   DRUGS  157 

stomach  will  prevent  seasickness ;  that  medicines  so 
diluted  that  a  chemist  could  detect  nothing  in  them  cure 
disease;  that  medicines  so  strong  that  the  digestion  is 
seriously  affected  can  be  of  service. 

Some  of  our  well-educated  people  believe  in  almost 
any  remedy  for  sickness  that  is  recommended  by  any 
one,  or  in  an  advertised  drug  about  which  they  know 
nothing.  All  of  this  simply  proves  that  we  are  not 
free,  even  to-day,  from  the  ignorance  and  superstition 
of  the  past. 

Every  year  we  spend  about  seventy-five  millions  of 
dollars   in    the    United    States    for    patent    medicines. 
These  drugs    are    made   to    sell.      They  are 
usually   handled    by    persons   who    have    no  medicines 
knowledge  of  the  science  of  medicine.     Great  aretobe 

distrusted 

fortunes  have  been  made  out  of  patent  medi- 
cines  which    are    quite   worthless.1     Investigation    has 
shown    that   some    of   these    remedies    are    composed 
largely  of    alcohol  and    are  little  better  than   taking  a 
drink  of  strong  whisky. 

Most  of  the  testimonials  which  appear  in  advertise- 
ments of  patent  medicines  are  "  made  up."  Some  of 
them  are  from  people  who  imagine  the  medicine  has 
cured  them.  Many  of  these  testimonials  are  bought. 
No  reputable  doctor  ever  advertises.  No  reputable 
remedy  is  ever  advertised  in  this  way. 

1  Patent  medicines  must  not  be  confused  with  proprietary  medi- 
cines, which  are  drugs  put  up  by  wholesale  dealers  who  state  the 
ingredients  upon  the  label.  We  do  not  know  what  patent  medicines 
contain,  but  we  do  know  the  ingredients  of  proprietary  drugs.  Ex- 
travagant claims  for  the  value  of  proprietary  drugs  are  seldom  made, 
as  is  always  the  case  with  patent  medicines. 


158  HYGIENE 

When  a  drug  is  advertised  as  a  cure  for  tuberculosis 
(as  many  are),  it  is  a  fraud.  There  is  no  drug  cure  for 
tuberculosis.  The  cure  comes  mainly  from  a  healthy 
out-of-door  life,  with  rest  and  good  food.  Many  poor 
people  pay  one  dollar  a  bottle  for  tuberculosis  cures 
which  are  composed  mainly  of  alcohol  and  some  nar- 
cotic like  opium. 

Aside  from  the  use  of  worthless  or  harmful  adver- 
tised drugs  and  patent  medicines,  many  persons  take 
The  dosing  too  much  medicine  of  the  regular  sort.  The 
habit  dosing  habit  is  easily  formed.  It  is  a  great 

mistake  to  suppose  that  every  simple  ailment  needs  to 
be  dosed.  Fresh  air,  sunlight,  good  food,  exercise, 
and  happy  thoughts  are  often  more  useful  than  any 
medicine. 

People  ought  never  to  dose  themselves  or  their  friends 
with  medicine  or  drugs.  They  should  consult  a  reliable 
doctor  when  medicine  is  needed.  Medicine,  to  be  use- 
ful, must  be  given  by  some  one  trained  to  apply  it  to 
particular  conditions. 

Many  of  our  disorders  are  largely  or  entirely  imagi- 
nary. They^  come  from  too  much  dwelling  upon  our- 
selves. Some  people  can  think  themselves 

The  influ-        .  .,  .    .  Tr       „ 

enceofthe     ln^o    all    sorts    of    sickness.      It    all    01    the 

mind  upon  imaginary  troubles  of  the  human  race  could 
health 

be  abolished,  hundreds  of  our  doctors  would 
find  themselves  out  of  practice. 

It  is  never  right  to  neglect  a  real  physical  trouble, 
Ri  ht  livin  ^ut  t*lc  practice  of  right  living  and  right  think- 
cures  many  ing  would  relieve  most  of  us  of  the  majority 

of  our  ailments.     People  overeat,  drink   tea 
and  coffee  to  excess,  use  tobacco  and  alcohol,  take  insuf- 


THE   USE   AND   ABUSE   OF   DRUGS  159 

ficient  sleep,  sleep  in  poorly  ventilated  bedrooms,  fail 
to  exercise  in  the  open  air,  and  indulge  in  many  bad 
habits,  and  then  either  take  a  patent  medicine  or  run  to 
their  doctor  to  be  cured.  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  get 
into  the  habit  of  running  to  a  doctor  for  every  slight 
ailment. 

If  any  one  has  diphtheria,  he  needs  immediate  treat- 
ment from  the  best  doctor  he  can  find.     If  he  has  tuber- 
culosis, or  if  he  is  "all  run  down,"  he  needs  Whenthe 
the  best  obtainable  medical  advice  at  once,   doctor  is 
And  we  might  mention  many  other  troubles  r 
which  can  be  successfully  treated  by  the  skillful,  honest 
physician. 

But  what  we  want  to  remember  is  this :  Nature  fur- 
nishes us  ivitJi  sufficient  protection  against  most  diseases. 
It  is  only  zvhen  we  live  unnatural  and  nnJiealthy  lives 
that  we  become  susceptible  to  most  disorders. 

The  evil  of  using  tobacco  or  whisky  is  not  because 
it  is  tobacco  or  whisky,  but  because   these  Tobacco  and 
things  usually  weaken  the  body's  power  to  whisky 
resist  disease,  and  injure  the  moral  nature  at  the  same 
time. 

Tobacco  or   alcohol  are  not   the  only  things  which 
have   this    weakening   effect.     Many  men  and  women 
have  wrecked  their  health  by  the  excessive   other 
use  of  tea  or  coffee,  and  never  realized  that  excesses 
they  were  doing  anything  wrong.     Such  people  break 
down  nervously  or  become  dyspeptics,  and  then  begin 
their  dosing  and  doctoring  habits.     An  excessive  eater 
may  be  just  as  great  a  sinner  against  himself  as  an 
excessive  drinker. 

It  is  the  duty  of  us  all  to  keep  our  bodies  and  minds 


160  HYGIENE 

strong  and  vigorous.  In  one  sense  disease  is  a  sin  or  a 
vice.  It  is  an  excusable  wrong  only  when  it  has  come 
through  lack  of  knowledge  or  by  accident. 

When  people  learn  the  real  causes  of  disease  and  also 
learn  what  right  methods  of  living  are,  they  will  cease 
patronizing  the  makers  of  patent  medicines  and  dosing 
themselves  for  every  little  ailment.  They  will  also  learn 
to  respect  the  medical  man  who  teaches  right  ways  of 
living  and  moderate  use  of  medicines  as  much  as  they 
do  the  one  who  largely  prescribes  drugs. 


CHAPTER    XIX 
ATHLETICS.   EXERCISE,  AND  OUTDOOR  LIFE 

NEARLY  all  boys  and  many  girls  are  much  interested 
in  athletic  games.  Baseball,  football,  basket-ball,  and 
the  field  meets  are  sports  that  most  pupils  are  enthusi- 
astic over. 

Nothing  can  be  better  for  a  boy  or  girl  who  wants 
to  be  healthy  and  to  succeed  in  the  world,  than  plenty 
of  outdoor  exercise.  Sensible  athletics  are  most  useful 
in  aiding  a  boy  or  girl  to  develop  a  strong,  healthy 
body,  but  when  athletics  are  abused,  more  harm  than 
good  will  result.  Exercise  is  like  food ;  it  is  for  use, 
but  not  for  abuse. 

It  is  a  great  mistake  to  enter  athletic  games  without 
special  preparation  and  direction.  No  young  person 
ought  ever  to  enter  a  field  meet  or  other  very  The  needof 
active  sport,  until  he  has  first  had  a  careful  physical 
physical  examination  from  the  school  doctor  * 
or  some  other  reliable  person.  Some  boys  have  weak 
hearts  which  would  be  injured  by  violent  exercise, 
but  which  would  be  much  improved  by  mild,  well- 
directed  exercise  of  other  kinds.  Many  boys  fail  to 
play  a  good  game  of  baseball  or  football  because, 
unknown  to  themselves,  they  have  imperfect  eyesight 
or  poor  hearing.  Girls  ought  not  to  play  basket-ball 
until  they  have  been  carefully  examined  to  make  sure 
that  their  organs  can  endure  severe  physical  exertion. 

161 


162  HYGIENE 

One  of  the  greatest  harms  from  athletics  comes  from 
failure  to  enter  into  proper  training.  Pupils  often  enter 
The  need  of  running  races  with  no  preparation  for  them, 
training  Developing  boys  are  not  physically  toughened, 
and  often  do  serious  injury  to  themselves  in  this  way. 
Such  races  should  always  be  short  and  never  of  the  kind 
to  place  a  heavy  strain  on  the  heart.  It  is  a  serious  mis- 
take for  boys  in  the  grammar  school,  or  the  average  boy 
in  the  high  school,  to  attempt  to  play  the  heavy  game 
of  football  which  college  men  play.  They  are  seldom 
physically  strong  enough  for  this. 

The  best  way  to  learn  how  to  exercise  properly  is  to 
attend  a  well-directed  gymnasium.  Most  towns  and 
cities  now  have  excellent  Y.M.C.A.  gymnasia,  where 
such  instruction  can  be  received. 

The  following  rules  should  be  followed  in  athletic 
sports : 

1.  Never  enter  violent  athletic  contests  without  first 
knowing  that  you  are  physically  sound. 

2.  Never  go  into  such  contests  suddenly,  but  always 
train  up  to  them  very  gradually. 

3.  Neverv  enter    contests   which    require    long,   hard 
runs.     These  surely  do  much  harm  to  developing  boys. 

4.  Young  pupils   ought   never  to  enter  violent  con- 
tests of  any  sort. 

5.  Always  secure   some  competent  person  to  direct 
your  athletics. 

Many  pupils  develop  an  enlarged  heart  (the  athletic 

Thedan  er     neart)    from    too    severe    muscular   exercise. 

of  over-          Such    hearts    are    never    strong,    and    may 

Slng      cause    serious   trouble    later    in    life.     Those 

people  who  carry  athletics  too  far  are  rarely  healthy  in 


ATHLETICS,   EXERCISE,   AND   OUTDOOR    LIFE      163 

later  life.  Many  athletes  strain  their  hearts  and  over- 
develop their  lungs.  For  this  reason  many  of  them  die 
of  heart  and  lung  disease  (consumption).  The  only 


WELL-TRAINED  BODIES  AND  WHOLESOME  MINDS  oo  TOGETHER. 

By  permission  of  the  Pasadena  Y.M.C.A. 

real  benefit  of  any  exercise  is  to  make  us  stronger — not 
weaker. 

For  those  who  cannot  take  the   rougher   forms   of 
exercise  and  sports,  there  are  still  many  other  pleasant 
kinds.      Some  can  play  tennis ;    others  ride  T. 
horseback  ;  others  take  tramps  in  the  country  of  choice  in 
or  hills ;    others  can  use  the  light  clubs  and  e 
other  apparatus  in  a  gymnasium.     Walking  is  one   of 
the  best  forms  of  exercise,  and  when  one  learns  how 
to  observe  things  about  him,  it  is  never  tedious.     An 


164 


HYGIENE 


observant  walker  in  the  country  learns   many  things 
which  books  cannot  teach  him. 

Learn  to  like  out-of-door  life,  even  if  you  do  not 
naturally  enjoy  it.  It  is  the  natural  life  for  a  natural 
person.  Camp  life,  walking  trips,  rowing,  swimming, 


OUTDOOR  LIKE  is  THK  NATURAL  LIKE. 

horseback  riding  —  any  such  outdoor  activities  improve 
our  health,  broaden  our  minds,  and  fit  us  better  for  the 
serious  duties  of  life. 

Exercise  that  is  taken  just  from  duty  is  never  very 
useful.  To  be  of  much  value  it  must  be  enjoyed.  Play 
is  as  important  as  work,  and  exercise  should  usually  be 
in  the  form  of  play.  Try  to  find  the  thing  you  like  to 
do,  and  then  cultivate  it  until  you  acquire  skill. 

Exercise  and  athletic  games  properly  taken  and  well 


ATHLETICS,   EXERCISE,   AND   OUTDOOR   LIFE      165 

directed  do  a  great  deal  of  good.     They  keep  us  out-of- 
doors  in  the  pure  air  and  sunlight;   we  are  Thereal 
forced  to  faster  breathing  so  that  we  get  a  value  of 
constant  fresh  supply  of  oxygen ;  the  appe- 
tite is  improved;  the  muscles  grow  firm  and  hard;  an 
excess  of  fat  in  the  body  is  prevented.     And  perhaps 
best  of  all,  boys  and  girls   learn    how   to  be  fair  and 


SWIMMING  AND  SAILING  DF.VELOP  ALERTNESS  OF  MIND  AS  WELL  AS 
STRONG  BODIES. 

square  with  each  other,  how  to  accept  defeat  gracefully, 
and  to  forget  themselves  in  happy  activity. 

Much  of  the  benefit  from  out-of-door  sport  results 
from  the  exact  training  of  the  hand,  eye,  ear,  and  other 
parts  'of  the  body  which  comes  with  it.  Almost  any 
good  sport  makes  a  person  more  alert  and  more  grace- 
ful. It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  right  sort  of 
exercise  trains  onlv  the  muscles. 


166  HYGIENE 

A  well-trained  muscle  must  be  guided  by  a  well- 
trained  mind.  Anything  which  trains  the  muscles  also 
trains  the  mind.  A  stupid  person  is  almost 
helps  in  always  an  awkward  person  also.  Many 
training  the  rather  stupid  pupils  have  been  made  bright 
and  active  by  muscular  training.  The  boy  or 
girl  coming  back  to  the  classroom  after  a  well-directed 
period  of  sport  returns  with  a  mind  just  as  much  im- 
proved as  it  would  have  been  with  a  lesson  in  algebra 
or  history.  A  boy  or  girl  who  learns  to  play  a  fine 
game  of  baseball,  or  tennis,  or  basket-ball,  has  improved 
his  or  her  mind  a  great  deal.  The  bookworm  who  does 
not  care  for  exercise  is  outstripped  in  the  end  by  the 
less  studious  boy  or  girl  who  builds  up  a  strong,  vigor- 
ous body. 

Exercises  ought  to  be  thought  of  as  something  more 
than  fun.  They  are  as  useful  in  educating  us  to  meet 
life  as  anything  else.  Sometime  our  public  schools  will 
include  directed  sports  as  part  of  the  school  studies. 


CHAPTER   XX 
PUBLIC  HEALTH 

A  PERSON  may  guard  his  own  health  fairly  well  if  he 
has  the  proper    knowledge  and  is  not   exposed  to  the 
carelessness   of    others.     But   however  care-  Theneces- 
fully  he  may  apply  the  principles  of  health   £.tj£[tjub~ 
to  his  own  habits  of  life,  he  may  not  be  able  protection 
to  resist  the  results  of    his    neighbor's  carelessness  or 
ignorance.      For   this    reason    much    attention    is   now 
given  to  the  protection  of  the  health  of  the  public. 

A  family  may  be  careful  to  drink  only  pure  water 
and  clean  milk  at  home,  but  often  its  members  cannot 
be  certain  that  the  water  or  the  milk  in  a  hotel  or  restau- 
rant in  a  neighboring  town  or  city  is  wholesome.  When 
we  purchase  meat,  we  must  either  depend  upon  the 
producer's  honesty  as  a  guarantee  of  its  healthful  con- 
dition, or  else  some  public  official  must  place  his  guar- 
antee upon  it. 

It  is  only  within  recent  years  that  either  the  United 
States  government,  or  state  and  city  governments,  have 
paid  much    attention    to    meat  or  any  other  Regulation 
food  inspection.     The  Pure  Food   Law  was  by law 
passed  by  Congress  as  recently  as  1907.     Before  this, 
although    there    was    some    government   inspection    of 
meat,  little  was  done    to  compel    producers  to  furnish 
pure  and  wholesome  foods  of  other  kinds.     Even  now 
we  must  depend  largely  upon  local  laws  to  guarantee 

167 


1 68 


HYGIENE 


wholesome  food.     Some  places  have  good  food  regula- 
tions ;  others  have  no  regulations,  or  very  poor  ones. 

Does  the  reader  know  whether, his  bread  comes  from 
a  clean  or  dirty  bakery ;  does  he  know  whether  the 
Duties  of  dairy  which  furnishes  his  milk  supply  is  run 
in  a  wholesome,  sanitary  way,  or  in  an  unsani- 
tary manner ;  does  he  know  that  the  water 
he  drinks  so  frequently  is  pure  and  free  from  sewage  ? 


boards  of 
health 


INSPECTION  OF  SHKKI>  HKKORK  KILLING. 

Does  he  know  that  his  vegetables  and  fruits  have  not 
been  exposed  to  contamination  in  front  of  stores  or  in 
dusty,  open  markets,  or  that  they  have  not  been  raised 
on  an  unwholesome  truck  farm,  perhaps  fertilized  with 
public  or  private  sewage,  as  is  often  the  case  on  Chinese 
farms?  Does  he  know  that  his  oysters  have  not  been 


PUBLIC    HEALTH  169 

grown  in  beds  contaminated  with  sewage  from  a  near- 
by city,  as  has  often  happened  ?  These  are  some  of 
the  questions  which  every  person  ought  to  ask  himself. 
But  as  he  cannot  always  answer  them  satisfactorily  and 
can  seldom  control  his  food  supplies,  most  states,  cities, 
and  towns  appoint  boards  of  health,  whose  duty  is  to 
attend  to  such  matters. 

It  is  more  important  to  employ  officers  to  guard  us 
against  disease,  than  it  is  to  employ  policemen  to  guard 
us  against  crime.  This  is  true  because  disease  is  harder 
to  locate,  harder  to  avoid,  and  more  difficult  to  conquer 
than  crime.  Disease  kills  far  more  people  than  crime 
does.  Disease  costs  us  far  more  money  than  crime  does. 
Our  country  has  only  made  a  start  in  the  protection  of 
the  public  against  avoidable  disease.  The  government 
at  Washington  spends  much  more  money  every  year 
for  the  discovery  and  prevention  of  animal  and  plant 
diseases  than  it  does  for  the  investigation  and  preven- 
tion of  human  diseases.  Sometime  we  shall  have  a 
national  Department  of  Health  at  Washington  which 
will  save  us  from  "preventable  death,  preventable  sick- 
ness, preventable  conditions  of  inefficiency,  and  prevent- 
able ignorance." 

Boards  of    health  not  only  protect    us    from  impure 
water  and  food  supplies  and  provide  for  the  disposal  of 
garbage,  but  they  also  try  to  protect  us  from   Quarantine 
contagious  diseases.     Such  diseases  as  mea-  Protection 
sles,  diphtheria,  scarlet  fever,  smallpox,  and  plague  are 
very  contagious,  and  most  places  isolate,  or  quarantine, 
people  who  are  sick  with    any    of   these   diseases.     A 
house  which  is  in  quarantine  has  tacked  upon  it  a  large 
colored  card  showing  the  name  of  the  disease,  so  as  to 


HYGIENE 


warn  people  to  keep  away.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary 
to  quarantine  an  entire  family,  even  when  only  one 
member  of  it  is  sick.  If  quarantine  were  strictly  prac- 
ticed, we  could  soon  wipe  out  most  contagious  diseases. 
Contagious  diseases  are  spread  in  schools  more  than 
in  any  other  way.  This  is  the  reason  why  school  chil- 
dren who  have  any  contagious  disease  ought  always  to 


THE  Qi\\RANTiNK  STATION  IN  SAN  FRANCISCO  BAY. 

be  kept  away  from  all  other  children  until  they  are 
well.  Some  diseases  are  contagious  for  a  number  of 
weeks,  and  it  is  the  duty  of  health  officers  to  decide 
when  the  patient  may  safely  mingle  again  with  others. 
Many  seaport  cities  have  quarantine  stations.  If  a 
ship  comes  to  San  Francisco,  for  example,  with  small- 
pox or  plague  on  board,  it  is  necessary  to  place  the 
vessel  in  quarantine,  and  hold  her  until  there  is  no  dan- 
ger of  new  cases  breaking  out.  Sometimes  the  entire 


PUHLIC    HEALTH 


I/I 


crew  and  all  the  passengers  are  taken  to  the  quarantine 
station  and  held  there  until  all  danger  is  passed.  In 
such  cases  the  quarantine  officers  disinfect  the  ship  and 
the  baggage  of  the  crew  and  passengers. 

Quarantine  stations  are  under  the  control  of  the 
Public  Health  and  Marine  Hospital  Service,  an  organi- 
zation of  the  national  government. 


THE  DISINFECTION  OF  CLOTH IN<;  AT  \  QPARANTINK  STATION. 

Steam  or  formaldehyde  gas  is  turned  into  the  great  steel  tubes  where  the 
wire  cases  of  clothing  are  put. 

For  at  least  one  of  our  common  contagious  diseases, 
a  quick  and  almost  certain  cure  has  been  discovered. 
This  disease  is  diphtheria.  The  cure  is  found  The  value  of 
in  antitoxin.  When  this  is  given  early  in  antitoxin 
the  disease,  it  practically  always  stops  it.  Antitoxin 
treatment  also  protects  those  who  have  been  exposed 


172  HYGIENE 

to  diphtheria  from  taking  the  disease.  It  is  not 
dangerous  to  health  and  should  always  be  given 
promptly. 

At  one  time  smallpox  was  a  very  disastrous  disease. 
Now,  owing  to  our  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  this 
Vaccination  disease  an<^  the  general  practice  of  vacciua- 
is  a  valuable  ttoii,  it  is  rapidly  disappearing.  Vaccination 
is  an  almost  perfect  protection  against  small- 
pox, which  would  soon  become  a  common  disease  if 
vaccination  were  abandoned.  Vaccination  is  never  dan- 
gerous when  properly  done.  The  stories  about  the  bad 
effects  of  vaccination  are  either  invented  for  the  purpose 
of  attacking  the  practice  or  are  due  to  some  misunder- 
standing of  the  real  conditions. 

Here  is  a  vaccination  creed : 

1.  True    vaccination — repeated    until   it    no    longer 
"  takes  "  —  always    prevents    smallpox.       Nothing    else 
does. 

2.  True  vaccination  —  that    is,  vaccination   properly 
done  on  a  clean  arm  with  pure,  potent  lymph,  and  kept 
perfectly  clean  and  unbroken  afterwards  until  the  scab 
falls  off  naturally  —  never  did  and  never  will  make  a 
serious  sore. 

3.  Such  a  vaccination  leaves  a  characteristic  scar,  un- 
like that  from  any  other  cause,  which  is  recognizable 
during  life,  and  is  the  only  conclusive    evidence  of   a 
successful  vaccination. 

4.  Serious  results  never  follow  such  vaccination.     On 
the  other  hand,  thousands  of  lives  are  usually  sacrificed 
through    the    neglect   to    vaccinate  —  a    neglect    which 
results  from  lack  of  knowledge. 


PUBLIC    HEALTH  173 

THE  SMALLPOX  RECORD  IN  CHICAGO,  1899-1908 


YEAR 

CASES  OF 
SMALLPOX 

DIED 

NUMBER  NEVER 
VACCINATED 

NUMBER 
VACCINATED 

1899   .... 

25 

I 

24 

I 

1900   .... 

S2 

2 

48 

4 

190!   .... 

276 

4 

237 

39 

1902   .... 

339 

5 

3'8 

21 

1903   .... 

389 

47 

339 

5° 

1904   .... 

358 

28       311 

47 

1905   .... 

546 

6  1       402 

144 

1906   .... 

23 

o 

21 

2 

1907   .... 

94 

o 

82 

12 

1908  (Oct.  i)   . 

80 

o        72 

8 

Total  .  .  . 

2182 

148      1854 

528 

None  died  who  were  vaccinated.  None  of  the  328  who  were  vac- 
cinated had  ever  been  revaccinated. 

The  health  of  the  public  is  protected  by  public  health 
boards  and  health  officers.  States  are  under  the  con- 
trol of  a  state  board  of  health,  and  the  secre- 

Organiza- 

tary  of  the  board  acts  as  the  health  officer  of  tions  which 

the  state.     Counties  provide  a  county  health   P10*60* th* 

public  health 

officer.     Cities  usually  maintain  a  local  board 
of  health  and  a  health  officer,  or  a  commissioner  of  health. 
In  some  large  cities,  as  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia, 
and    Chicago,  there    are    many  bureaus  in    the    health 
department.     The  most  important  of  these  are: 

The  Bureau  of  Vital  Statistics. 

The  Bureau  of  Medical  Inspection. 

The  Bureau  of  Disinfection. 

The  Bureau  of  Food,  Milk,  and  Water  Supplies. 

The  Bureau  of  Sanitation. 


174  HYGIENE 

i.  The  Bureau  of  Vital  Statistics  keeps  a  record  of 
all  births  and  deaths,  and  grants  burial  permits.  A 
study  of  the  number  and  the  causes  of  deaths  in  a  com- 
munity furnishes  an  exact  index  of  the  health  conditions 
in  that  community.  The  number  of  deaths  in  every 
thousand  of  population  is  called  the  dcatli  rate. 

The  death  rate  in  London  in  the  seventeenth  century  was 
about  80  per  thousand.  To-day  it  is  only  24.  In  1665  the 
death  rate  in  London  was  430  per  thousand.  This  was  due  to 
the  plague  which  raged  there  almost  unchecked. 

The  death  rate  in  Boston  during  the  last  one  hundred  and 
fifty  years  has  been  reduced  from  37  to  25  per  thousand.  In 
1908  this  rate  was  only  19.10  per  thousand. 

In  1893  water  filtration  was  introduced  into  Liwrence,  Mass. 
This  reduced  the  death  rate  from  typhoid  to  one  sixth  the  pre- 
vious number. 

In  1908  the  death  rate  in  Chicago  from  typhoid  fever  was 
only  1.56  for  each  10,000  inhabitants.  This  was  a  reduction  of 
33  per  cent  over  the  average  of  the  ten  years  preceding  1908, 
and  91  per  cent  below  the  high  mark  of  1891,  when  Chicago's 
record  was  the  highest  of  any  city  in  the  civilized  world.  This 
wonderful  reduction  in  the  number  of  deaths  from  typhoid  in 
Chicago  is  largely  due  to  sanitary  improvements  and  the  edu- 
cation which  the  work  of  the  Public  Health  Department  has 
accomplished. 

In  1854  the  death  rate  in  Chicago  was  64  per  one  thousand 
of  population.  In  1908  it  was  only  14.10. 

In  Stockholm,  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the 
average  duration  of  life  was  sixteen  years,  while  to-day  it  is 
about  forty- eight  years. 

The  lessons  to  be  drawn  from  such  vital  statistics  are 
many,  but  the  chief  one  is  this  :  much  of  the  suffering, 


PUBLIC   HEALTH 


175 


poverty,  and  death  of  the  world  is  caused  by  prevent- 
able ignorance. 

2.  The  Bureau  of  Medical  Inspection  attends  to  all 
cases  of   contagious    diseases,  and   in  some    places  in- 
spects schools. 

3.  77/t'  Bureau  of  Disinfection  has  charge  of  the  dis- 
infection of  all  places  which  have  been  under  quarantine 
for  contagious  diseases. 

4.  The  Bureau  of  Milk,  Food,  and   Water  Inspection 
takes  charge  of  everything  that  has  to  do  with  the  fur- 
nishing of  healthful  milk,  food, 

and  water  to  the  citizens  of  the 
community. 

5.  The  Bureau  of  Sanitation 
inspects  houses,  premises,  public 
buildings,    and     tenements.      It 
looks  after  everything  in  general 
that  might    prove  a  menace    to 
public  health. 

Nothing  can  add  more  to  the 
health,  happiness,  and  efficiency 
of  a  town,  city,  or  country  than 
careful  attention  and  education 
in  matters  of  public  health. 
Health  is  the  greatest  asset  any 
person  or  any  country  can  pos- 
sess. We  owe  far  more  to  our 

public  health  officers  than  we  do  even  to  our  bankers, 
lawyers,  and  family  doctors.  Mr.  Roosevelt  has  said, 
"  Our  national  health  is  physically  our  greatest  asset. 
To  prevent  any  possible  deterioration  of  the  American 
stock  should  be  a  national  ambition." 


A  TENEMENT-HOUSE 
INSPECTOR. 


HYGIENE 

Here  are  a  few  sentences  from  men  who  are  to-day 
trying  to  save  the  nation  from  unnecessary  sickness  and 
death.  They  are  worth  memorizing. 

"  Knowledge  has  value  in  proportion  as  it  benefits  the 
human  race."-  -PROFESSOR  CHITTENDEN. 

"  The  death  rate  might  be  cut  in  two  were  we  to 
apply  the  existing  knowledge  of  hygiene  to  present  liv- 
ing conditions."  -  DR.  WELCH. 

"  Sickness  is  going  out  of  fashion.  Well  organized, 
civilized  society  will  not  stand  for  it." -  —  DR.  CRANDON. 


CHAPTER    XXI 
MAKING  THE   MOST  OF  LIFE 

VERY  few  people  ever  learn  the  lesson  of  living  so  as 
to  get  the  most  out  of  life.  By  getting  the  most  out  of 
life  we  mean  keeping  well,  being  happy,  and  learning 
hbw  to  be  as  useful  as  possible.  In  this  book  we  have 
tried  to  show  that  health,  happiness,  and  usefulness  are 
all  dependent  upon  one  another. 

Without  useful  knowledge  of  our  physical  machinery 
we  can  never  hope  to  obtain  the  best  success 
in    life.      If  we  are  ignorant  of   the   human   The  efficient 
machine,  how  it   does   its  work,  and   how  it   p^^son 
should  be   adjusted   to  its    surroundings,   we   knowledge 
fail  to  make  the  most  of  life. 

We  do  not  study  physiology  and  hygiene  in  order  to 
remember  some  facts  about  bones  and  muscles,  or  about 
digestive  juices  and  reflex  actions.  We  study  these 
subjects  in  order  to  learn  how  to  live  healthful,  happy, 
useful  lives.  Already  such  knowledge  has  added  twenty 
years  to  the  length  of  the  average  human  life. 

In  the  army  and  the  navy  soldiers  and  sailors  are 
trained  to  meet  conditions  which  we  call  warfare,  but  in 
civil  life  almost  no  training  is  given  to  prepare  boys 
and  girls,  or  men  and  women,  for  a  more  certain  and  a 
more  dangerous  and  disastrous  battle  —  the  struggle  for 
existence. 

We  are   never  truly  educated  until  we  learn  how  to 


178  HYGIENE 

meet  successfully  the  surroundings  of  life,  or  what  is 
called  our  environment.  The  person  who  becomes  ill 
with  typhoid  fever,  malaria,  tuberculosis,  or  even  indi- 
gestion, is  either  ignorant  or  the  victim  of  his  neigh- 
bor's ignorance.  He  has  not  learned  how  to  meet  his 
environment. 

A  man's  or  a  woman's  efficiency  in  this  world  is 
largely  dependent  upon  his  or  her  degree  of  health 
Efficient  Good  health  is  the  best  investment  that  any 
depends  on  one  can  possibly  make.  It  will  bring  in  more 
money  than  any  other  one  thing  in  the  world. 
Employers  do  not  want  boys  with  poor  eyesight  or  poor 
hearing,  or  girls  with  round  shoulders  or  crooked  backs. 
Bright  minds  cannot  make  up  for  weak  bodies,  and 
minds  will  not  long  remain  bright  in  such  bodies. 

The  earning  power  of  any  pupil  who  leaves  school 
early  in  the  grades  is  reduced  at  least  fifty  per  cent. 
It  is  a  fact  —  and  not  a  theory  —  that  the  chief  cause  of 
leaving  school  is  not  poverty,  but  defective  health. 

We  must  also  remember  that  a  healthy  mind  nearly 
always  goes  with  a  healthy  body.  It  is  seldom  that  a 
physically  sound  person  is  a  very  bad  person.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  has  been  found  that  about  eighty-five  per 
cent  of  the  children  who  come  before  the  juvenile  courts 
have  physically  defective  bodies. 

Good  health  will  bring  more  happiness  than  any  othet 
„  .  one  thing  in  the  world.  Healthy  people  are 

depends  on      nearly  always  happy  ;  unhealthy  people  are 
rarely  so.     The  world  wants  happy  people. 

The  practice  of  health  principles  ought  to  be  a  part 
of  every  one's  religion.  One  can  never  harm  his  own 
mind  or  body  alone.  Every  man  must  be  his  brother's 


MAKING   THE   MOST   OF   LIFE  179 

keeper  whether  he  desires  to  be  so  or  not.     Not  one  of 
us  can  live  to  himself  alone. 

Knowledge  of  healthful  living  is  already  saving  the 
world  millions  of  dollars  and  years  of  suffering.  Since 

1007  we  have  learned  that  nearly  two  millions 

Healthful 
of  people  in  the  South,  called  the  "  poor  white  iiving  pre. 

trash,"  are  suffering  from  a  preventable  and  vents  dis- 
easily   curable   disease.       These    people    are 
shiftless,  lazy,  ignorant,  and  worthless.     They  have  been 
in  this  condition  for  at  least  one  hundred  years,  although 
they  come  from  good  English  stock.     Is  it  not  a  sad 
sight  to  see  all  these  human  beings  enduring  the  con- 
tempt of  their  healthier  and  happier  neighbors,  suffer- 
ing  from    sickness,    and    incapable    of     succeeding   at 
anything,   when   a    little   knowledge   could    prevent  all 
this  ? 

They  are  the  victims  of  an  unequal  struggle  against 
an  unseen  foe.  That  foe  is  a  parasite  called  the  hook- 
worm, which  makes  its  way  into  their  bodies  and  saps 
their  vitality. 

But  thanks  to  the  knowledge  given  to  us  by  one  of 
our  government  experts  at  Washington,  Dr.  Stiles,  it 
now  seems  possible  to  raise  these  unfortunates  from 
misery  and  inefficiency  to  happiness  and  usefulness. 
All  that  is  required  is  that  they  shall  learn  and  practice 
a  few  simple  health  principles. 

Dr.  Grenfell  tells  us  that  one  out  of  every  three  deaths 
in  Labrador  is  caused  by  tuberculosis,  and  in  the  United 
States  we  have  learned  that  one  person  dies  of  this  dis- 
ease about  every  four  minutes.  It  is  ignorance  which 
results  in  the  loss  of  so  many  people  in  Labrador,  for 
they  live  all  winter  long  in  crowded,  ill  ventilated  houses. 


l8o  HYGIENE 

Missionaries  of  health  are  needed  there,  and  they  are 
needed  also  here  at  home. 

Two  million  people  in  the  South  might  be  taught  how 
to  save  themselves.  Two  hundred  thousand  people  who 
are  now  sick  with  tuberculosis  in  the  United  States 
might  be  taught  the  same  simple  lesson.  Such  knowl- 
edge must  also  be  learned  by  every  growing  boy  and 
girl,  if  the  men  and  women  of  to-morrow  are  to  lead 
useful,  efficient  lives. 

Louis  Agassiz  once  said  that  a  natural  law  is  as 
sacred  as  a  moral  principle.  The  laws  of  Jicaltli  are 
natural  laws,  and  they  are  therefore  sacred. 

Great  wars  between  nations  are  now  almost  things  of 
the  past.  President  Jordan  of  Stanford  University  has 
w  rf  shown  that  such  wars  really  destroy  the 

against  country's  choicest  men,  for  only  strong  men 
disease  can  gO  to  war  The  wars  of  the  future  will 
be  those  directed  not  against  men,  but  against  disease. 
It  will  be  a  warfare  waged  for  the  good  of  all  and  to 
the  injury  of  none. 

A  great  teacher  has  said  :  "  For  each  of  us  it  is  pos- 
sible to  incfrease  the  duration  of  his  best  moments,  and 
to  render  them  more  frequent.  It  is  also  possible  for 
us  to  reduce  the  number  and  length  of  those  periods  of 
depression  and  low  vitality  when  our  work  miscarries 
and  our  lives  lack  snap  and  enthusiasm. 

"If  we  succeed  in  bringing  about  such  a  change,  we 
shall  have  raised  the  whole  plane  of  our  living  to  some- 
thing higher  and  more  admirable.  There  are  conditions 
for  each  individual  under  which  he  does  the  most  and 
best  work.  It  is  his  business  to  ascertain  those  condi- 
tions and  to  comply  with  them." 


TOPICS  FOR  DISCUSSION  AND 
REVIEW 

PART  I.     GENERAL  PHYSIOLOGY 

CHAPTER  I    (Pages  5-11) 

These  questions  are  given  as  suggestive  reviews.     The  pupil  roust  not 
he  expected  to  answer  all  of  them  without  the  aid  of  the  teacher. 

1.  Describe  the  framework  of  the  body. 

2.  Describe  the  main  divisions  of  the  body. 

3.  How  is  the  spinal  cord  protected? 

4.  What  are  bones  for? 

5.  What  is  a  muscle? 

6.  What  is  the  relation  between  bones  and  muscles? 

7.  What  is  a  lever? 

8.  Mention  some  muscles  which  do  not  act  on  bones. 

9.  What  are  nerves? 

10.    What  is  meant  by  the  nervous  system? 

CHAPTER  II  (Pages  12-14) 

1.  Compare  the  cells  of  the  body  to  the  bricks  of  a  house. 

2.  Why  may  the  stomach  be  called  merely  a  receptacle  for 
food? 

3.  When  is  the  body  fed? 

4.  Why  may  the  lungs  be  called  reservoirs  for  air? 

5.  Where  do  food  and  air  finally  go  in  the  body? 

6.  How  are  food  and  air  carried  in  the  body? 

7.  Compare  the  cells  of  the  body  to  an  army. 

8.  Compare  the  cells  cf  the  body  to  a  community  of  people. 

9.  In  what  ways  are  cells  dependent  upon  one  another? 

181 


182  TOPICS   FOR   DISCUSSION   AND   REVIEW 

CHAPTER  III  (Pages  15-23) 

1 .  What  is  an  organ  ?     Name  several. 

2.  Why  do  organs  differ? 

3.  What  is  meant  \sy  function  ? 

4.  Mention  the  principal  function  of  the  following  organs : 
brain,  nerves,  kidneys,  lungs,  liver,  stomach,  intestines. 

5.  What  are  organs  of  excretion? 

6.  What  are  secreting  organs? 

7.  What  is  a  gland? 

8.  What  is  a  duct? 

9.  What  is  the  digestive  tract? 

10.  What  work  does  the  heart  do? 

11.  What  happens  if  any  organ  gets  out  of  order? 

12.  What  is  meant  by  a  system  ? 

13.  What  is  meant  by  a  tissue? 

14.  What  is  meant  by  a  cell? 

CHAFFER  IV  (Pages  24-29) 

1.  Compare    the    circulatory    system    with    a   waterworks 
system. 

2.  Why  do  the  smallest  blood  vessels  have  thin  walls? 

3.  What  i£  the  work  of  the  heart  and  blood  vessels? 

4.  What  is  lymph? 

5.  Why  may  the  blood  be  called  the  common  carrier  of  the 
body? 

6.  Where  does  the  blood  dispose  of  waste  substances? 

7.  Name  all  the  substances  you   know  which   the   blood 
carries. 

8.  How  does  food  reach  the  cells  of  the  body? 

9.  Explain  why  food   in   the  stomach  does  not   feed   the 
body. 

10.  What  are  arteries? 

1 1.  What  are  veirjs? 


TOPICS   FOR    DISCUSSION    AND    REVIEW         183 

12.  What  are  capillaries? 

13.  What  is  plasma? 

14.  What  solid  bodies  are  there  in  the  blood? 


CHAPTER  V   (Pages  30-43) 

1 .  What  is  food  ? 

2.  Compare  food  with  fuel. 

3.  Why  is  the  body  warm? 

4.  What  is  combustion? 

5.  What  is  the  temperature  of  the  healthy  body? 

6.  What  kinds  of  animals  have  the  highest  temperature? 
Explain. 

7.  What  animals  have  low  temperatures? 

8.  Do  you  think  the  temperature  of  an  animal  which  sleeps 
all  winter  is  high  or  low?     Explain. 

9.  Why  is  it  that  the  temperature  of  the  body  does  not 
rise  during  exercise? 

10.  How  is  the  temperature  of  the  body  regulated? 

1 1 .  Why  does  it  keep  the  same  temperature  on  a  hot  and  a 
cold  day? 

12.  For  what  do  we  need  food? 

13.  Name  the  food  prin ciples. 

14.  Name  several  starch  foods. 

15.  Name  several  sugar  foods. 

16.  What  is  a  nitrogen  food?     Give  examples. 

17.  What  foods  are  needed  for  heat  and  work? 

1 8.  What  foods  are  needed  for  growth  and  repair? 

19.  What  is  proteid? 

20.  What  is  peptone  ? 

21.  What  food  principles  are  found  in  milk? 

22.  Why  cannot  an  adult  live  on  a  diet  of  milk  alone? 

23.  What  is  cheese? 


184  TOPICS   FOR   DISCUSSION   AND   REVIEW 

24.  Name  an  albumen  food. 

25.  Name  the  principal  fat  foods. 

26.  What  are  the  organic  foods? 

27.  What  are  the  inorganic  foods? 

28.  How  much  water  does  a  person  need  daily? 

29.  What  are  food  flavors?     Name  some. 

30.  Are  coffee  and  tea  foods? 

31.  Is  alcohol  a  food  ? 

32.  What  is  the  purpose  of  digestion? 

33.  In  what  ways  must  starch,  proteids,  and  fats  be  changed 
by  digestion? 

34.  What  is  saliva?     What  is  its  function ? 

35.  What  is  an  emulsion?     Give  an  illustration. 

36.  What  is  bile?     What  work  does  it  do? 

37.  Describe  the  work  of  the  pancreatic  juice. 

38.  What  organ  secretes  pepsin  and  hydrochloric  acid  ? 

39.  What  food  is  changed  by  pepsin  and  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  what  is  the  change?     Why  is  this  change  necessary? 

CHAPTER  VI   (Pages  44-52) 

1.  How  may  the  nervous  system  be  compared  with  a  fore- 
man or  superintendent  ? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  coordination? 

3.  What  are  the  controlling  parts  of  the  nervous  system? 

4.  What  is  the  cerebrum  ? 

5.  What  is  the  cerebellum? 

6.  What  is  the  medulla? 

7.  In  what  part  of  the  brain  does  consciousness  arise? 

8.  What  work  does  the  cerebellum  do? 

9.  What  do  you  mean  by  centers  in  the  brain?     Illustrate. 

10.  What  is  the  spinal  cord? 

11.  How  is  it  protected? 

12.  How  is  it  connected  with  the  brain? 


TOPICS    FOR    DISCUSSION    AND    KEV1EVV         185 

13.  What  is  a  reflex  action?     Illustrate. 

14.  Is  there  ever  consciousness  with  a  reflex  action? 

15.  What  is  the  sympathetic  nervous  system? 

1 6.  What  work  does  it  do? 

17.  What  parts  of  the   nervous  system  control  breathing, 
swallowing,  the  beat  of  the  heart,  and  regulation  of  the  blood 
supply? 

18.  What  happens  if  the  spinal  cord  is  badly  injured? 

19.  What  happens  if  the  medulla  is  badly  injured? 

20.  What  is  paralysis? 

21.  What  is  apoplexy? 

22.  What  do  you  mean  by  automatic  actions? 

23.  What  are  nerves? 

24.  Compare  the  nerves  of  the  body  to  the  wires  of  a  tele- 
graph or  telephone  system. 

25.  Compare  the  will  power  to  the  telegraph  operator. 

26.  Compare  the  nerve  cells  of  the  brain  to  batteries  in  a 
telegraph  office. 

27.  How  are  the  different  parts  of  the  spinal  cord  and  the 
brain  brought  into  communication  with  each  other? 

28.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  nerve  cell  and  a  nerve  ? 

29.  What  is  education  as  applied  to  the  brain? 

30.  What  parts  of  the  brain  keep  on  developing  until   at 
least  sixty  years  of  age? 

31.  Kxplain  habit. 

32.  What  do  you  mean  by  the  physical  basis  for  habits? 

33.  Why  is  it  hard  to  break  a  habit? 

34.  What  do  you  mean  by  false  messages  received  and  sent 
by  the  brain?     What  things  produce  these  false  messages? 

35.  In  what  way  does  one  become  a  victim  to  his  habits? 

36.  In  what  way  does  the  use  of  alcohol,  tobacco,  coffee, 
drugs,  form  a  fixed  habit? 

37.  What  sorts  of  things  make  the  nervous  machinery  wear 
out? 


1 86        TOPICS    FOR   DISCUSSION   AND   REVIEW 

CHAPTER  VII   (Pages  53-55) 

1.  Compare  the  human  body  with  a  machine. 

2.  What  is  energy? 

3.  Name  several  forms  of  energy. 

4.  Compare  food  and  fuel. 

5.  Why  is  a  steam  engine  wasteful? 

6.  Why  is  the  body  less  wasteful  than  a  steam  engine  ? 

7.  What  is  a  machine? 

8.  What  do  you  mean  by  changing  the  form  of  energy? 

9.  What  do  you  mean  by  combustion? 

10.    Compare  the  waste  products  of  the  human  body  with 
the  waste  products  of  a  machine. 

IT.    How  can  you  get  the  most  work  out  of  a  machine? 

12.  How  can  you  get  the  most  work  out  of  the  human  body? 

13.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  understand  the  working  of  the 
human  body? 

14.  Compare  this  sort  of  knowledge  with  the  knowledge  of 
an  engineer. 

PART   II.     HYGIENE 

v    CHAPTER  VIII   (Pages  59-66) 

1.  What  is  meant  by  resistance?     When  is  one  susceptible 
to  a  disease  ? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  a  natural  defense  in  the  body?     Name 
several. 

3.  Mention  an  important  work  of  the  white  blood  corpuscles. 

4.  Explain  the  struggle  that  occurs  at  times  between  the 
white  cells  and  bacteria. 

5.  How  are  bacteria  sometimes  reduced  in  strength  after 
they  gain  a  foothold  in  the  body? 

6.  If  bacteria  produce  poisons  in  the  body,  how  may  nature 
aid  the  body  to  overcome  the  poison  ? 


TOPICS   FOR   DISCUSSION   AND   REVIEW         187 

7.  Mention  one  use  of  lymph  glands. 

8.  Explain  how  the  temperature  of  the  body  is  regulated. 
What  is  the  temperature  of  the  body  ? 

9.  What  uses  has  pain  ? 

10.  Explain  the  difference  between  the  cause  of  a  trouble 
and  its  symptom  or  symptoms. 

11.  Why   must  one  discover  the  cause   before    treating  a 
trouble? 

12.  Can  you  mention  any  other  defenses  of  the  body  not 
named  in  the  chapter? 

CHAPTER  IX  (Pages  67-71) 

1.  What  does  health  depend  upon? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  division  of  labor  among  the  cells  of  the 
body  ? 

3.  Compare  the  workmen  in  a  factory  with  cell  workers  of 
the  body. 

4.  Why  does  the  human  body  get  out  of  order  rather  easily? 

5.  Compare  the  body  to  a  complicated  piece  of  machinery. 

6.  What  kind  of  cells  in  the  body  can  never  be  replaced  if 
once  destroyed? 

7.  What  kinds  of  cells  are  easily  replaced  ? 

8.  What  does  the  seriousness  of  sickness  depend  upon  ? 

CHAPTER  X  (Pages   72-80) 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  things  that  make  a  person  sus- 
ceptible to  disease? 

2.  Name  some  of  the  most  healthful  occupations. 

3.  Name  some  of  the  most  unhealthful  occupations. 

4.  Give  your  explanation  of  the  reasons  in  both  cases. 

5.  What  kinds  of  work  have  a  tendency  to  lead  to  tuber- 
culosis? 

6.  Why  are  the  Jews  a  healthy  race  of  people  ? 

7.  What  are  some  of  the  effects  of  child  labor? 


1 88        TOPICS   FOR   DISCUSSION    AND   REVIEW 

8.  What  are  some  of  the  evil  effects  of  intemperance  upon 
the  children  of  intemperate  parents  ? 

9.  Which  do  you  think  are  worse,  l\\e physical  or  the  moral 
effects  of  intemperance? 

10.  What  common  things  may  a  person  use  to  excess  besides 
alcohol  ? 

11.  What  is  the  relation  between  intemperance  and  resist- 
ance to  disease? 

12.  Does  a  child  of  drinking  parents  necessarily  inherit  a 
taste  for  alcohol  ? 

13.  What  qualities  is  he  pretty  sure  to  inherit? 

14.  What  are  some  of  the  direct  causes  of  disease? 

15.  What  is  meant  by  the  terms  bacteria  and  parasites  ? 

16.  What  conditions  are  favorable  to  their  growth? 

17.  What  can  you  say  about  their  multiplication? 

18.  How  long  have  we  known  about  bacteria? 

19.  What  benefit  has  this  knowledge  been  to  mankind? 

20.  What  are  some  of  the  uses  of  bacteria? 

21.  What  is  the  relation  between  bacteria  and  decay? 

22.  Name  some  methods  used  to  prevent  fermentation  and 
decay. 

23.  Explain  how  the  food  for  animals  and  plants  originally 
comes  from  the^  earth,  air,  and  water,  and  how  all  animals  and 
plants  are  at  last  reduced  to  this  source. 

CHAPTER  XI  (Pages  81-91; 

1.  What  is  a  contagious  disease? 

2.  Are  bacteria  animals  or  plants? 

3.  Name  the  common  contagious  diseases. 

4.  What  did  people  formerly  think  was  the  cause  of  conta- 
gious disease? 

5.  What  were  their  conditions  of  life? 

6.  What  is  the  relation  between  sanitary  surroundings  and 
health  ? 


TOPICS    FOR    DISCUSSION    AND    REVIEW         189 

7.  What  superstitions  about  disease  still  exist  among  people 
to-day? 

8.  Why  should  one  not  take  patent  or  other  advertised 
medicines? 

9.  What  is  the  objection  to  "  street  doctors  "  and  those  who 
practice  with  mysterious  methods? 

10.  What  ought  the  public  to  demand  of  a  doctor? 

11.  Is  there  anything  mysterious  about  disease? 

12.  In  what  countries  is  bubonic  plague  the  worst?    Why? 

13.  What  is  the  relation  between  rats  and  the  plague? 

14.  How  does  our  government    prevent   the   plague    from 
gaining  a  foothold  in  this  country? 

15.  Explain  the   relation   between  swamps  and  other  wet 
places    and   malaria.      How  can   a   malarial   district   be   made 
healthful? 

1 6.  How  did  our  government   stamp  out  yellow  fever  in 
Cuba? 

17.  Why  did   not  the  Cubans  succeed   in  doing  so  years 
before  ? 

1 8.  What  work  of  our  government  is  making  the  digging  of 
the  Panama  Canal  possible? 

19.  Why  did  not  the  French  succeed  in  this  work? 

20.  What  two  dangerous  diseases  still  rage  in  this  country, 
and  why? 

21.  Why  is  tuberculosis  a  dangerous  disease? 

22.  How  could  tuberculosis  be  controlled  better  than  it  is  at 
present? 

23.  Why  is  the  public  so  careless  about  tuberculosis? 

24.  How  do  you  think  the  public  could  be  aroused  on  this 
subject? 

25.  Tell  what  you  know  about  the  way  typhoid  fever  and 
tuberculosis  are  spread. 

26.  What  is  meant  by  quarantining  a  house  ? 

27.  What  is  meant  by  isolating  a  sick  person? 


190        TOPICS   FOR   DISCUSSION   AND   REVIEW 

28.  How  may  a  room  be  disinfected? 

29.  What  are  the  best  disinfectants? 

30.  How  can  the  public  be  educated  best  about  health  and 
disease  ? 

31.  How  do  you  think  an  epidemic  of  diphtheria,  scarlet 
fever,  or  measles  in  a  school  could  best  be  controlled? 

32.  Mention  some  of  the  work  of  a  board  of  health. 

33.  How  could  contagious  diseases  be  wiped  out  of  exist- 
ence? 

34.  What  conditions  favor  the  growth  of  bacteria? 

35.  What  conditions  are  necessary  in  the  home  for  protection 
against  disease  germs? 

36.  What  is  the  relation  between  bad  ventilation  and  disease? 

37.  Why  is  pneumonia  so  common  in  large  cities? 

38.  Compare  the  air  of  mountains  and  the  sea  with  that  of 
cities. 

39.  What  may  be  the  danger  from  expectorations  in   the 
street? 

40.  What  diseases  may  be  carried  in  water,  milk,  meat? 

41.  What  is  a.fi/f/i  disease? 

42.  Explain  how  insects  may  carry  disease. 

43.  How  may  animals  carry  disease? 

\ 
CHAPTER  XII  (Pages  92-97) 

1.  What  is  a  cold? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  "  taking  cold  "? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  an  infection  ? 

4.  In  what  sort  of  places  do  we  most  often  take  colds? 
Why? 

5.  Why  do  not  people  take  cold  in  the  polar  regions,  on 
mountains,  and  far  out  at  sea  ? 

6.  What  has  chilling  to  do  with  colds? 

7.  Why  is  a  direct  draft  dangerous?    Is  it  always  dangerous? 

8.  What  things  predispose  a  person  to  colds? 


TOPICS   FOR    DISCUSSION   AND    REVIEW         191 

9.  How  may  indigestion  cause  a  cold? 

10.  Is  there  any  relation  between  colds  and  tuberculosis? 

1 1 .  What  is  meant  by  catarrh  ? 

1 2.  How  may  colds  be  avoided  ? 

13.  How  should  a  cold  be  treated  when  it  first  comes  on? 


CHAPTER  XIII   (Pages  98-114) 

1.  What  is  meant  by  personal  hygiene? 

2.  What  is  eye  strain  ? 

3.  What  are  some  of  the  causes? 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  indications  of  eye  troubles? 

5.  Tell  what  you  know  about  the  care  of  the  eyes. 

6.  What  sort  of  light  is  best  for  close  eye  work? 

7.  Why  ought  not  young  pupils  to  do  much  close  eye  work? 

8.  What  objection  is  there  to  going  to  an  optician,  instead 
of  to  an  oculist  ? 

9.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  two? 
10.  What  are  adenoids? 

i  r.  What  harm  may  they  do  to  the  health? 

12.  What  is  the  usual  cause  of  crooked  teeth? 

13.  When  are  tonsils  dangerous  to  health? 

14.  What  relation  is  there  between  nose  and  throat  troubles 
and  ear  trouble? 

15.  What  are  the  common  causes  of  deafness? 

1 6.  What  is  catarrh  ? 

17.  What  are  some  of  the  causes  of  catarrh? 

1 8.  How  may  indigestion  be  avoided? 

19.  What  are  some  of  the  causes  of  headache? 

20.  Why  should  advertised  headache  remedies  be  avoided? 

21.  How  often  should  a  young  person  see  a  dentist? 

22.  Do  the  first  teeth  need  dental  care? 

23.  Why  are  decayed  teeth  injurious  to  health? 

24.  What  should  one  do  about  crooked  teeth? 


192        TOPICS   FOR   DISCUSSION   AND   REVIEW 

25.  Discuss  sleep  :  why  it  is  important ;  how  much  is  needed ; 
the  best  time  for  sleep. 

26.  Explain  the  uses  of  cool  bathing. 

27.  Discuss  bathing  in  general. 

28.  Name  the  dangers  of  sea  bathing. 

29.  Why  is  the  Japanese  army  healthier  than  any  other? 

CHAPTER  XIV  (Pages  115-129) 

1.  What  is  the  best  kind  of  location  for  a  home? 

2.  What  are  the  objections  to  dark,  damp  rooms? 

3.  What  is  the  value  of  sunlight  and  fresh  air  in  a  home  ? 

4.  What  is  the  value  of  an  open  fireplace  ? 

5.  How  may  a  room  heated  by  a  stove  be  best  ventilated? 

6.  Explain  a  good  method  of  ventilation,  when  a  home  is 
heated  by  a  hot-air  furnace. 

7.  What  is  the  objection  to  oil  and  gas  stoves? 

8.  What  kinds  of  heating  systems  make  the  air  too  dry? 

9.  What  is  the  effect  of  dry  air? 

10.  What  conditions  are  likely  to  cause  too  much  humidity 
in  a  room  ? 

it.  What  effect  does  the  burning  of  lamps  have  on  the  air 
in  a  room? 

12.  Discussvthe  ventilation  of  bedrooms. 

13.  Is  there  any  danger  in  night  air? 

14.  Describe  an  out-door  sleeping  room. 

15.  Tell  one  reason  why  tuberculosis  is  a  common  disease  in 
the  country. 

1 6.  What  are  some  of  the  consequences  of  poor  ventilation? 

17.  Why  is  dust  dangerous? 

1 8.  Describe  the  best  methods  for  dusting  a  room. 

19.  What  are  the  best  floor  coverings? 

20.  What  are  the  objections  to  heavy  upholstery  and  hang- 
ings in  a  room? 

21.  What  are  the  dangers  from  bad  plumbing  in  a  house? 


TOPICS   FOR    DISCUSSION    AND   REVIEW         193 

22.  What  are  cesspools? 

23.  How  may  they  cause  trouble? 

24.  Describe  a  modern  hygienic  kitchen. 

25.  Discuss  sanitary  stores,  bakeries,  meat  shops,  milk  sup- 
plies. 

26.  How  should  a  sick-room  be  cared  for? 

27.  Tell  something  about  the  care  of  a  sick  person  in  the 
home. 

CHAPTER  XV  (Pages  130-136) 

1.  Compare  food  and  the  body  to  fuel  and  an  engine. 

2.  What  are  the  uses  of  food  to  the  body? 

3.  What  kinds  of  food  are  needed  by  people  in  cold  coun- 
tries ? 

4.  Why  does  not  a  grown  person  require  as  much  food  as  a 
boy? 

5.  What  foods  are  used  principally  for  growth  and  repair? 

6.  What  foods  are  used  principally  for  heat  and  work? 

7.  Give  examples  of  foods  containing  starch. 

8.  Name  several  kinds  of  sugar  and  explain  where   they 
come  from. 

9.  Name  several  kinds  of  fats  and  oils. 

10.  What  is  a  nitrogen  food  ?     Give  examples. 

1 1.  What  do  you  mean  by  a  mixed  diet? 

12.  What  is  the  objection  to  a  diet  of  starchy  foods? 

13.  What  is  an  unnatural  food  habit? 

14.  What  is  the  object  of  the  process  of  digestion? 

15.  What  is  the  relation  between  health  and  digestion? 

1 6.  What  has  indigestion  to  do  with  weakening  the  defenses 
of  the  body? 

17.  What  foods  are  apt  to  ferment  in  the  stomach  or  intes- 
tines? 

18.  How  may  a  person  poison  himself  with  healthful  food? 

19.  What  is  the  commonest  cause  of  decayed  teeth? 


194        TOPICS   FOR   DISCUSSION   AND   REVIEW 

20.    What  has  the  mind  to  do  with  digestion  ? 
When  is  candy  harmful  ? 
What  can  you  say  of  tea  and  coffee  as  food  ? 

23.  Make  a  series  of  rules  for  correct  habits  in  eating. 

24.  Explain  several  methods  by  which  foods  may  be  pie- 
served. 

25.  Why  do  foods  spoil? 

26.  How  may  foods  be  kept  from  spoiling? 

27.  Why  do  foods  from  cold  storage  and  canned  goods  need 
special  care? 

CHAPTER  XVI   (Pages  137-147) 

1.  Why  is  milk  so  frequently  contaminated  with  bacteria? 

2.  Why  is  city  milk  usually  worse  than  that  from  a  private 
dairy? 

3.  Are  all  the  germs  in  milk  of  the  disease-producing  kind? 

4.  What  kind  of  milk  contains  the   greatest  number  of 
germs? 

5.  What  kind  contains  the  least  number? 

6.  How  can  you  tell  when  milk  has  been  carelessly  handled  ? 

7.  How  do  germs  get  into  milk? 

8.  What  is  the  relation  between  the  water  supplies  at  the 
dairy  and  the  milk? 

9.  What  very  common  disease  affects  cattle? 

10.  How  may  this  disease  be  detected? 

1 1.  How  may  a  clean,  wholesome  milk  supply  be  obtained? 

12.  If  you  could  not  discover  the  reliability  of  the  milk  supply 
at  once,  what  would  you  do  to  make  the  milk  safe  to  drink  ? 

13.  Does  Pasteurizing  milk  injure  it?     What  is  the  effect? 

14.  Mention  some  of  the  rules  for  a  clean  dairy. 

15.  Why  should  a  town  or  city  undertake  to  obtain  a  pure 
milk  supply? 

1 6.  What  is  the  condition  of  the  milk  supplies  in  your  town 
or  city? 


TOPICS   FOR    DISCUSSION   AND   REVIEW         195 

17.  Visit  a  large   dairy,  if  possible,  and   report  what  you 
observe. 

1 8.  Visit  a  private  dairy,  if  you  can,  and  see  if  it  is  a  clean 
one.     If  it  is  not,  tell  how  it  could  be  made  so. 

19.  Why  is  river  water  seldom  pure? 

20.  How  may  a  well  be  contaminated? 

21.  Why  is  spring  water  usually  pure? 

22.  Explain  why  filters  are  usually  worthless. 

23.  What  sort  of  filter  is  useful? 

24.  How  should  a  filter  be  cared  for? 

25.  Does  removal  of  dirt  from  drinking  water  by  means  of  a 
filter  always  mean  that  the  water  is  pure?     Explain. 

26.  Explain  some  of  the  methods  for  disposing  of  sewage. 

27.  Explain  some  of  the  dangers  from  leaking  sewer  pipes. 

28.  When  may  cesspools  be  a  source  of  danger? 

CHAPTER  XVII   (Pages  148-155) 

1.  What  is  a  stimulus? 

2.  What  is  a  narcotic? 

3.  Why  is  alcohol  not  a  stimulus? 

4.  Why  is  it  a  narcotic? 

5.  What  effect  has  alcohol  upon  the  muscles? 

6.  What  effect  has  it  upon  the  brain  ? 

7.  What  effect  has  it  upon  the  morals? 

8.  Do  you  think  the  moral  or  physical  effects  of  alcohol 
are  worse  ? 

9.  What  effect  has  alcohol  upon  the  temperature  of  the 
body? 

10.  Explain  this  effect  upon  temperature. 

11.  Why  does  a  person  at  first  feel  stimulated  by  alcoholic 
drinks? 

12.  What  change  occurs  in  the  nerve  cells  of  the  brain  from 
the  use  of  alcohol? 


196        TOPICS   FOR   DISCUSSION   AND   REVIEW 

13.  What  do  you  think  is  the  strongest  argument  against  the 
use  of  alcohol  ? 

14.  Is  "  alcoholism  "  a  habit  or  a  disease? 

15.  What  is  the  relation  between  the  resistance  of  the  body 
to  disease  and  the  use  of  alcohol  ? 

1 6.  What  is  the  effect  of  the  habitual  use  of  alcohol  upon 
the  children  of  parents  who  so  use  it  ? 

17.  What  is  the  relation  between  disease,  poverty,  crime, 
and  the  use  of  alcohol? 

1 8.  Does  alcohol  increase  the  power  for  work? 

19.  If  you  were  going  out  for  a  long  drive  on  a.  very  cold 
day,  would  a  drink  of  whisky  warm  you  ? 

20.  Why  do  mountain  climbers  and  Arctic  explorers  avoid 
alcoholic  drinks  ? 

21.  Why  do  those  in  training  for  athletic  contests  avoid 
alcohol  ? 

22.  Why  is  the  use  of  tobacco  injurious? 

23.  What  are  the  dangers  from  the  use  of  cigarettes? 

24.  Is  the  use  of  coffee  and  tea  injurious? 

25.  If  you  think  so,  explain  why. 

26.  Under  what  conditions  may  the  use  of  good  food  be  as 
injurious  as  coffee,  tea,  or  tobacco? 

27.  How  may  a  person  poison  himself  with  ordinary  food? 

CHAPTER  XVIII   (Pages  156-160) 

1.  How  much  is  spent  every  year  in  the  United  States  for 
patent  medicines? 

2.  Why  should  every  one  avoid  patent  medicines? 

3.  What  can  you  say  about  tuberculosis  "  cures  "  ? 

4.  What  can  you  say  about  cures  in  general  that  are  adver- 
tised in  the  papers  and  magazines? 

5.  Explain  the  evil  of  the  dosing  practice  with  regular  drugs. 

6.  How  can  one  avoid  most  disorders? 

7.  When  should  a  person  consult  a  physician? 


TOPICS    FOR    DISCUSSION   AND   REVIEW         197 

8.  What  sort  of  physician  ought  one  to  go  to? 

9.  Mention  some  of  the  superstitions  about  disease  to-day. 

10.  Do  you  know  of  any  not  mentioned  in  the  book? 

1 1.  What  has  the  mind  to  do  with  the  health  of  the  body? 

12.  What  do  you  mean  by  right  ways  of  living? 

13.  Mention  some  of  the  habits  which  break  down  the  health. 

14.  What  habits  may  be  just  as  vicious  as  the  excessive  use 
of  alcohol  or  tobacco  ? 

CHAPTER  XIX  (Pages  161-166) 

1.  Why  is  a  physical  examination  necessary  for  any  one 
who  enters  athletic  work? 

2.  Why  is  gradual  training  necessary  in  athletics? 

3.  How  may  violent  exercise  harm  a  boy  or  girl? 

4.  What  is  the  danger  from  sudden  strains? 

5.  From  what  diseases  do  many  athletes  die?     Why  is  this ? 

6.  What  is  the  real  use  of  exercise? 

7.  Name  the  advantages  of  out-of-door  exercises. 

8.  What  are  some  of  the  milder  forms  of  exercise  ? 

9.  In  what  way  do  exercises  aid  in  the  training  of  the  eye, 
ear,  and  hand  ? 

10.  Do  exercises  improve  the  mind?     If  so,  how? 

11.  Can  exercise  be  compared  in  value  with   an  ordinary 
school  study?     If  so,  how  must  it  be  directed? 

12.  Explain  why  out-of-door  life  is  the  natural  life  for  a 
natural  person. 

13.  What  is  the  relation  between  a  bright,  clear  mind  and  a 
healthy  body,  and  what  has  exercise  to  do  with  this? 

14.  Tell  what  you  know  about  public  playgrounds. 

CHAPTER  XX  (Pages  167-176) 

1.  What  are    some  of  the  government  organizations  that 
protect  public  health  ? 

2.  Explain  why  such  protection  is  needed. 


198        TOPICS   FOR   DISCUSSION   AND    REVIEW 

3.  Tell  what  you  know  about  the  Pure  Food  Law. 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  duties  of  the  board  of  health  re- 
garding food  and  water  supplies? 

5.  How  do  health  officers  protect  us  from  contagious  dis- 
eases? 

6.  Tell  what  you  know  of  the  quarantining  of  ships  coming 
from  foreign  ports. 

7.  What  is  antitoxin? 

8.  What  is  vaccination  ? 

9.  Explain  the  importance  of  vaccination. 

10.  Tell  as  much  as  you  can  of  the  work  done  by  the  various 
bureaus  in  the  health  department  of  a  big  city. 

11.  Discuss  some  of  the  ways  in  which  general  good  health 
promotes  the  success  and  happiness  of  a  nation. 


APPENDIX 

WHY  A  WORLD  WARFARE  IS  BEING  WAGED  AGAINST 
TUBERCULOSIS 

IMPORTANT  FACTS  CONCERNING  TUBERCULOSIS  l 

TUBERCULOSIS,  or  consumption,  is  a  disease  which  robs  the 
mothers  of  the  world  of  one  out  of  every  ten  children.  The 
causes  of  this  disease  are  known,  likewise  the  means  whereby 
it  may  be  prevented. 

In  the  United  States  more  than  150,000  persons  die  every 
year  from  tuberculosis,  and   200,000  are  constantly  sick  with 
this  disease.     The  great  majority  of  these  persons   The  cost  of 
are  in  the  prime  of  life.     Many  of  them  are  married,    tubercu- 
and   by   their    untimely    deaths    leave   dependent 
families  to  be  cared  for  by  the  state.     The  loss  in  money  to 
the  United  States  from   these   preventable  deaths  every   year 
amounts  to  more  than  $300,000,000.     The  suffering  caused  by 
the  disease  it  is  impossible  to  estimate. 

1.  Tuberculosis  is  preventable.  Two  impor- 

2.  Tuberculosis  is  curable.  tant  facts 
These  are  most  important  facts  worthy  of  widest  circulation, 
especially  as  contrary  ideas  prevail.     Universal  prevention  and 
cure   of  this   disease  will  result  only  when  there  is  universal 
effort  against  it. 

The  direct  cause  of  tuberculosis  is  a  germ.  There  can  be  no 
tuberculosis  unless  this  germ  is  present  in  the  body.  A  second- 

1  Adapted  from  "  Gold  Medal  Leaflet,"  International  Tuberculosis 
Congress,  1908. 

199 


200  APPENDIX 

ary  cause  is  that  the  body  of  the  person  who  takes  this  disease 
The  causes  *s  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  germ.  Any 
of  tubercu-  person  whose  health  and  strength  are  run  down 
is  predisposed  to  tuberculosis,  because  in  such  a 
person  there  is  not  much  resistance.  The  two  things  necessary, 
then,  for  tuberculosis,  are  the  presence  of  a  certain  germ  and  a 
lack  of  resistance  to  it. 

When  the  germ  gets  into  the  body  of  a  person  who  is  run 

down  in  health,  it  finds  conditions  suitable  for  its  growth,  and 

it  produces  the  disease  called  tuberculosis.     Poisons 

thrown  out  by  the  germs  get  into  the  blood,  and 

these  poisons  cause  most  of  the  symptoms  of  the  disease. 

The  symptoms  of  tuberculosis  vary  according  to  the  stage 
The  svmp-  which  the  disease  has  reached.  The  symptoms  or 
toms  of  tu-  the  early  stages  particularly  should  be  learned,  for 
bercuiosis  ^  -]S  tnen  tnat  cure  can  ^  brougnt  about  and  lives 

can  be  saved. 

This  disease  usually  comes  on  in  very  slow  and  mild  fashion. 
That  is  what  throws  the  persons  infected  off  their  guard.  There 
may  be  nothing  more  than  a  tired  feeling,  especially  after  work, 
a  lessened  appetite,  some  loss  of  weight,  and  perhaps  an  occa- 
sional cough. 

As  the  disease  grows  worse,  these  symptoms  likewise  increase. 
The  loss  of  weight  may  be  very  noticeable  ;  there  may  be  fever 
and  night  sweats.  With  the  more  frequent  cough  much  sputum 
may  be  expectorated. 

In  the  advanced  stages  some  of  these  symptoms,  like  cough, 
loss  of  weight,  and  fever,  may  be  very  pronounced.  Then  we 
have  the  picture  of  the  "consumptive." 

Tuberculosis  is  prevented  by  doing  two  things  : 
How  tuber-     i.    Killing  the  germs  that  cause  the  disease, 
be  °re8  "^     2>    Hav'ngPe°P'e  become  healthy,  so  that  they  will 
vented  not  be  predisposed  to  the  disease. 

The  germs  are  scattered  far  and  wide  in  the  sputum  coughed 


TUBERCULOSIS 


2O I 


up   by  consumptives.     One   consumptive  can  cough  up  in  a 
single  day  several  billion  of  these  germs.     When  this   How  the 
sputum  dries  as  dust,  the  germs  are  blown  about ;   germs  are 
they  get  into  the  air  we  breathe  and  on  the  food   destr°yed 
we  eat  and  things  we  handle.     In  this  way  every  person   at 


OUTDOOR  LIFE  CURES  TUBERCULOSIS. 

This  patient  is  regaining  health  by  living  on 
a  leaky  porch.1 


some  time  in  life  probably  gets  the  germs  into  his  body,  but  if 
he  is  in  good  health  they  do  him  no  harm. 

To  destroy  these  germs,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  destroy  the 
sputum.  If  it  is  coughed  into  paper  cups  or  napkins,  these 
can  be  burned  and  the  germs  destroyed.  For  spittoons,  dis- 
infectant solutions  like  lye  should  be  used.  Spitting  on  the 
streets,  and  especially  on  floors,  is  dangerous. 

lrThis  picture  and  those  on  page  96  are  used  by  courtesy  of  the 
Emmanuel  Church  Tuberculosis  Class. 


202  APPENDIX 

Bodily  weakness,  that  is,  the  predisposition  to  tuberculosis, 
may  be   overcome  by  right   living,  particularly  by  breathing 
How  the         pure  air,  eating  nourishing  food,  and  getting  the 
tendency  to    proper  proportion  of  rest  and  exercise, 
may  be  A  child  weak  at  birth  should  be  guarded,  and 

overcome        as   he  grows  older   he  should  spend  much  time 
out  of  doors. 

Children  weak  from  diseases  like  measles  or  whooping  cough 
should  not  be  neglected.  These  and  kindred  diseases  are  often 
responsible  for  tuberculosis  being  contracted  later  in  life. 

Children  should  not  be  made  to  work  at  too  early  an  age, 
nor  allowed  to  study  so  hard  as  to  interfere  with  health. 

Food  should  be  eaten  slowly,  and  should  always  be  nourish- 
ing. If  cow's  milk  is  used,  it  should  be  obtained  from  a  dairy 
having  no  tuberculous  cattle. 

The  living  and  sleeping  rooms  of  the  family  should  always 
be  well  ventilated.  The  human  body,  if  it  is  to  be  in  a  healthy 
state,  must  have  pure  air.  Bedrooms  should  not  be  over- 
crowded, and  single  beds  are  a  necessity. 

Tuberculosis  may  be  cured  by  the  same  measures  which  pre- 
vent it,  namely,  by  making  the  body  stronger,  so  that  it  will 
H  t  b  r  ^e  able  to  kill  the  germs  that  have  entered  the 
culosis  may  tissues.  Pure  air,  good  food,  and  plenty  of  rest 
constitute  a  treatment  which  cures  more  people  of 
tuberculosis  than  all  the  medicines  that  are  known.  Tent  life, 
or  the  use  of  a  sleeping  porch  or  tent  room,  has  aided  in  the 
cure  of  thousands. 

The  patient  should  avoid  patent  medicines  for  tuberculosis, 
particularly  cough  medicines,  as  these  usually  contain  alcohol 
and  opiates,  which,  though  they  make  the  patient  feel  better, 
usually  allow  the  disease  to  grow  worse. 

These  methods  of  treatment  should  be  carried  out  under  the 
advice  of  a  private  or  dispensary  physician  who  has  made  a 
study  of  the  disease. 


TUBERCULOSIS  203 

SOME  RULES  FOR  THE  STUDY  AND  PREVENTION  OF 
TUBERCULOSIS  ' 

Tuberculosis  is  a  communicable  disease. 

Tuberculosis  is  a  preventable  disease. 

Tuberculosis  is  a  curable  disease. 

Tuberculosis  is  communicated  by  means  of  the  tubercle 
bacilli,  small  plants  which  are  thrown  off  frequently  from  the 
lungs  in  the  expectoration. 

The  patient  is  not  dangerous  to  others  if  this  expectorated 
matter  is  properly  destroyed. 

Tuberculous  discharges  should  be  received  in  a  receptacle 
of  such  nature  th;it  the  matter  can  be  burned,  or  otherwise 
destroyed,  and  the  receptacle  boiled. 

Expectorations  should  never  be  swallowed. 

When  coughing  or  sneezing,  patients  should  cover  their 
mouths  with  the  hand  or  handkerchief. 

Several  forms  of  spit  cups  are  on  the  market :  some  of 
pasteboard,  which  can  be  burned ;  others  of  metal,  which  can 
be  boiled ;  others  of  metal  form,  holding  a  papier  mach£  cup, 
which  can  be  replaced  at  nominal  expense.  Whatever  form  is 
used,  the  cup  should  be  covered  to  prevent  flies  from  coming 
in  contact  with  the  sputum. 

Disinfectant  solutions  may  be  used  in  these  cups  :  carbolic 
acid  solution,  five  parts  to  one  hundred  of  water  ;  concentrated 
lye,  one  tablespoonful  to  a  glass  of  water ;  or  formalin,  five 
parts  to  one  hundred  of  water. 

Expectorating  into  cloths  which  are  carried  in  the  pocket 
or  placed  about  the  bedding,  is  a  dangerous  practice.  It  may 
cause  further  infection  of  the  patient  and  the  infection  of 
others.  If  circumstances  are  such  that  cloths  must  be  used 
temporarily,  they  should  be  burned,  never  washed.  After  the 

1  Southern  California'  Association  for  the  Study  and  Prevention  of 
Tuberculosis. 


204  APPENDIX 

sputum  has  become  dry,  such  cloths  are  dangerous  to  persons 
who  handle  them. 

Expectoration  should  be  destroyed  before  it  dries. 

Expectoration  should  be  kept  away  from  flies. 
.  Never  expectorate  in  dark  corners. 

Tuberculosis  patients  should  always  wash  their  teeth,  mouth, 
and  hands  before  meals  and  frequently  during  the  day. 

Apartments  used  by  consumptives  should  not  contain  car- 
pets, unnecessary  upholstering,  curtains,  or  tapestry. 

Apartments  which  have  been  used  by  tubercular  patients 
should  be  thoroughly  disinfected  under  the  direction  of  the 
health  authorities  or  a  competent  physician. 

Cases  of  tuberculosis  should  be  reported  to  the  proper  health 
authorities,  not  for  the  purpose  of  quarantine,  but  for  general 
instruction. 

Those  afflicted  with  tuberculosis  should  not  play  or  associate 
intimately  with  children. 

Remember  that  tuberculosis  is  curable,  if  the  case  comes  early 
under  the  guidance  of  an  intelligent  physician. 

Remember  that  tuberculosis  is  rarely,  if  ever,  inherited. 

Remember  that  the  hereditary  tendency  toward  tuberculosis 
can  always  be  overcome  if  one  has  the  proper  knowledge. 


SUGGESTIONS   FOR   TEACHERS 

In  order  that  the  study  of  health  may  be  made  really  profit- 
able, it  is  necessary  to  interest  pupils,  and  older  readers  a.s  well, 
in  things  outside  of  book  studies. 

Pupils  may  be  readily  started  upon  a  little  original  investiga- 
tion. For  example,  certain  of  them  may  be  asked  to  study  the 
dairy  conditions  of  their  town  or  city  and  report  upon  them  ; 
others  may  be  given  the  problem  of  mosquito  extermination  ; 
some  pupils  can  be  interested  to  look  up  the  health  ordinances 
of  their  town,  city,  or  state ;  many  will  be  glad  to  investigate 
the  local  water  supply  and  the  methods  for  the  disposal  of 
sewage  and  garbage  ;  the  question  of  tenement  house  improve- 
ments will  interest  city  pupils ;  any  pupil  can  be  interested  in 
the  subjects  of  public  playgrounds,  summer  health  camps,  and 
outdoor  life.  The  health  conditions  of  its  own  school  and 
grounds  will  serve  as  profitable  topics  for  any  class.  Encourage 
pupils  to  tell  what  they  know  from  actual  experience  about 
contagious  diseases  and  their  control.  Let  some  pupils  investi- 
gate the  conditions  of  the  streets,  public  buildings,  back  yards, 
etc.,  in  their  own  locality.  Interest  certain  members  of  the 
class  in  the  sanitary  conditions  of  the  local  grocery  stores,  meat 
shops,  bakeries,  and  candy  stores.  Assign  such  topics  as  drain- 
age, meat  inspection,  pure  food  laws,  patent  medicines,  flies, 
preparation  of  food,  ventilation  at  home,  the  care  of  the  teeth, 
adenoids,  diseased  tonsils,  defective  eyesight,  and  causes  of 
poor  nutrition.  In  a  word,  try  to  induce  the  pupils  to  apply  to 
life  what  they  learn,  from  the  day  of  the  very  first  lesson. 

Make  out  a  list  of  questions  dealing  with  daily  life  to  be 
answered  in  writing  by  each  member  of  the  class  without  sign- 


206  APPENDIX 

ing  any  name,  and  from  the  answers  lay  out  a  course  in  practi- 
cal hygiene.     The  following  questions  are  suggested  : 

1.  Do  you  have  one  or  more  windows  open  in  your  bedroom  at 
night? 

2.  Is  your  bouse  screened  in  summer? 

3.  Do  you  take  cold  easily? 

4.  Do  you  eat  lunch  every  day? 

5.  If  you  do  not  eat  every  day  at  noon,  how  often  do  you  take 
lunch? 

6.  Do  you  drink  coffee? 

7.  If  you  do,  how  often  each  day? 

8.  Do  you  drink  tea? 

9.  If  you  do,  how  often  each  day? 

10.  What  do  you  usually  eat  for  breakfast  ? 

1 1.  How  often  do  you  bathe  all  over? 

12.  How  many  hours  do  you  sleep? 

13.  What  time  do  you  go  to  bed? 

14.  What  time  do  you  get  up? 

15.  Do  you  work  outside  of  school  hours? 

16.  If  you  do,  at  what  kind  of  work? 

17.  Do  you  have  headache  often? 

18.  Do  your  eyes  hurt  often? 

19.  Can  you  read  writing  on  the  board  easily? 

20.  Do  you  use  a  toothbrush  ? 

21 .  If  you  do,  how  often  ? 

22.  Have  you  any  bad  teeth? 

23.  Have  you  ever  been  to  a  dentist? 

24.  Do  you  smoke? 

25.  If  you  do,  how  often? 

Many  special  problems  of  local  interest  will  suggest  them- 
selves. Physiology  and  hygiene  taught  in  this  way  will  soon 
cease  to  be  a  bore  and  become  a  pleasant  diversion  as  well  as 
a  profitable  duty. 


TOPICS    ON    HEALTH    SUBJECTS 


Alcohol. 

Antitoxin. 

Bacteria  :  use  ;  harmful. 

Boards  of  Health. 

Canning  Industry. 

Care  of  Milk. 

Cereal  Breakfast  Foods. 

Certified  Milk. 

Child  Labor. 

City  Health  Ordinances. 

Cuba  :  health  conditions. 

Dairy  Investigation. 

Destruction  of  Mosquitoes. 

Disinfection. 

Dust. 

Field  Meets. 

Garbage  Disposal. 

Health  Camps. 

Health  of  Various  Countries. 

Ice. 

Japanese  Army  Sanitation. 

Malaria. 

Medical  Supervision  of  Schools. 

Milk  Ordinances. 


Model  Dairies. 

Municipal  Playgrounds. 

Open  Air  Sanatoria. 

Panama. 

Patent  Medicines. 

Plague. 

Preparation  of  Food.  . 

Preservation  of  Food. 

Pure  Food  Legislation. 

Quarantine. 

School  Hygiene. 

Sewage  Disposal. 

Summer  Camps  for  Children. 

Sweat  Shops. 

Tenements. 

The  Teeth. 

Tobacco. 

Tuberculosis. 

Typhoid. 

Unhealthful  Occupations. 

Vaccination. 

Water    Filtration    and    Water 

Supplies. 
Yellow  Fever. 


207 


PUBLICATIONS   ON    PHYSIOLOGY   AND 
HEALTH   TOPICS 

The  Human  Mechanism.     SEDGWICK   and  HOUGH.  Macmillan  Company. 

The  Human  Body.     MARTIN.     Henry  Holt. 

Physiology  and  Hygiene.     WALTERS.     D.  C.  Heath  and  Company. 

Good  Health  for  Boys  and  Girls.     BROWN.     D.  C.  Heath  and  Company. 

The  Story  of  the  Living  Machine.     CONN.     D.  Appleton  and  Company. 

Principles  of  Hygiene.     BERGEV.     W.  B.  Saunders  Company. 

Personal  Hygiene.     PYLE.     W.  B.  Saunders  Company. 

Physical  Nature  of  the  Child.     S.  H.  KO\VE. 

Hygiene,  pp.  2, 122,  171,  175,  182,  184;    Health,  pp.  6,  91,  93,  107,  131, 
161. 

Section  on  Hygiene,  1907,  1908,  and  succeeding  years,  American  Medical 
Association,  Chicago. 

Civics  and  Health.     ALLEN.    (Especially  useful  for  teachers  and  parents.) 
(Jinn  and  Company. 

The  Community  and  the  Citizen.     DUNN.     D.  C.  Heath  and  Company. 

Principles  of  Sanitary  Science  and  Public  Health.     SEIJGWICK.     Macmil- 
lan Company. 

Outlines  of  Practical  Sanitation.     II.  B.  BASHORE. 

School  Sanitation  and  Decoration.     BURRAGE  and  BAILEY.     D.  C.  Heath 
and  Company. 

The  Hygiene  of  the  Schoolroom.    BARRY.    Silver,  Burdett  and  Company. 

Bibliography  of  Education.    Chapter  on  School  Hygiene.    W.  S.  MUNROE. 

Medical  Inspection  of  Schools.     GULICK.     Charities  Publishing  Company, 
New  York. 

Dynamic    Factors   in    Education.     O'SHEA.     Eye    defects,    p.   269;    Eye 
strain,  pp.  267-274;   Fatigue,  pp.  23,  178,  180,   188-208. 

Examination  of  the  Eyes  of  School  Children.    J.  C.  EBI.RHAKDT.    National 
Educational  Association.     Report,  1906,  p.  173. 

Plan  for  Health  and  Development  Inspection.    GEO.  L.  LESLIE.    National 
Educational  Association,  1907,  p.  922. 

Physical  Training  and  School  Physiology.     WM.  W.  HASTING.     National 
Educational  Association,  1907,  p.  925. 

Relation  of  the  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child  to  his  Mental  and  Moral  De- 
velopment.    G.  \V.  REIO.     National   Educational  Association,   1907, 

V-  3"5- 

208 


PUBLICATIONS  ON    HEALTH   TOPICS  209 

Requirements  as  to  Vaccination  of  School  Children.     Commission  of  Edu- 

cation,  vol.  I,  1905,  p.  207. 
Secondary  Education.     New  York  State  Educational  Department,  Bulletin 

27,  p.  119. 
Health  Pamphlets  for  Teachers  and  Parents.     E.  H.  Hoag.    Cunningham, 

Curtis,  and  Welsh,  San  Francisco  and  I.os  Angeles. 
Foods  and  their  Adulteration.     WII.KY.     Blakiston,  Chicago. 
Food  in  Health  and  Disease.     L.  B.  YKO.     W.  T.  Keener  and  Company, 

Chicago. 

Dairy  Bacteriology.     RUSSEL.     University  of  Wisconsin. 
The  Story  of  Germ  Life.     G>NN.     D.  Appleton  and  Company. 
Bacteria,  Yeasts,  and  Moulds  in  the  Home.     CONN.     Ginn  and  Company. 
Hygiene  of  Transmissible  Diseases.     AHBOTT.     W.  B.  Saunders  Company. 
Practical    Points   in    Nursing.     STONEY.      W.  T.  Keener   and  Company, 

Chicago. 

Home  Medical  Library.     Review  of  Reviews  Company. 
The  Great  American  Fraud  (Patent  Medicines).     Collier's  Weekly. 

Pamphlets,  Reports,  etc.,  dealing  with  Health  Subjects 

Hygiene  and  Physical  Education.     F.  A.  Bassette  Company,  Springfield, 

Mass. 

Bulletin  of  the  Hygienic  Laboratory,  Treasury  Department,  Washington. 
Year    Books   and    Farmers'   Bulletins,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Washington.     (Very  practical.) 
Publications  of   the   U.  S.   Public   Health  and    Marine    Hospital    Service, 

Government  Printing  Office,  Washington. 
Annual    Reports  and    Bulletins  of  the   New  York  and    Chicago    Health 

Departments. 
Reports  of  the   Tenement   House  Department,  New  York.     MARTIN  B. 

BROWN. 

Journal  of  the  American  Academy  of  Medicine.     (Devoted  largely  to  hy- 
giene.)     Easton,  Pa. 

The  Psychologic  Clinic,  Philadelphia.     University  of  Pennsylvania. 
The  American  Journal  of  Public  Health.     Boston. 
American  Health.     Also  24  pamphlets.     American    Health   League,  New 

Haven,  Conn. 
School  Hygiene.     American  School    Hygiene  Association.     D.  C.  Heath 

and  Company. 

1 8  Booklets.     Health  Education  League,  Boston. 
The  Survey,  formerly  Charities  and  the  Commons.     New  York. 


READING   REFERENCES   GROUPED   BY 
SUBJECTS 

[  These  references  are  largely  to  periodicals.      Consult  also  the  list  of  books, 

page  2oS.~\ 
BACTERIA 

Life  of  the  Invisible  World.     Scientific  American,  vol.  67,  p.  63,  Jan. 

23,  1909. 

Straight    Way    of  Life.      P.  C.  MITCHELL.      World's   Work,  vol.   15, 
p.  9540,  Nov.,  1907. 

CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES 

House  Fly  Nuisance.     W.  FROST  and  C.  T.  VORHIRES.     Country  Life, 

vol.  14,  p.  57,  May,  1908. 
The  House  Fly.      Department  of  Agriculture,  University  of  California, 

1909. 
Do  Doctors  carry  Contagious  Diseases  ?     Kevie^v  of  Reviews,  vol.   36, 

p.  630,  Nov.,  1907. 
Scientific  Study  of  Infectious  Diseases.     Nature,  vol.   75,  p.  213,  Dec. 

27,  1906. 
Metchnikoff  on  ^mmunity  in  Infectious  Diseases.      Current  Literature, 

vol.  42,  p.  332,  March,  1907. 

Vaccination  Creed.     Department  of  Health,  Chicago. 
Antitoxin.     Publications  of  Stearns  &  Co.,  Detroit;    Parke,  Davis  &  Co., 

Detroit;    Mulford  &  Co.,  Philadelphia. 
Opsonic  Theory 

New  Hope  for  Health.     E.  A.  AYERS.      World's  Work,  vol.  14,  p. 

9431,  Oct.,  1907. 
New  Microbe  Inoculation.     R.  K.  Di'NKAN.     Harpers'  Weekly,  vol 

115,  p.  204,  July,  1907. 
Plague  in  India 

Outlook,  vol.  87,  p.  274,  Oct.  12,  1907. 
Black-woods,  vol.  182,  p.  577,  Oct.  12,  1907. 
R.  Ross.     Nature,  vol.  76,  p.  609,  Oct.  17,  1907. 
210 


REFERENCES   GROUPED    BY   SUBJECTS         211 

CUBA,  PANAMA,  and  the  PIIILIITINES 

What  Americans  have  done  in  Cuba.  J.  M.  GREENK.  Wisconsin  Re- 
port, vol.  30,  p.  595,  Aug.,  1907. 

Health  Conditions  at  Panama.  Scientific  American,  vol.  96,  p.  366, 
May  4,  1907;  vol.  98,  p.  270,  April  18,  1908;  vol.  100,  p.  117,  Feb.  6, 
1909. 

Helping  the  Philippines  to  light  Disease.  II.  M.  E<;HERT.  Harper? 
Weekly,  vol.  52,  p.  28,  Dec.  26,  1908. 

EYE  TROUBLES 

Good  Eyesight  in  relation  to  Good  Health.  I..  II.  GUI.ICK.  World's 
Work,  vol.  13,  p.  8629;  Review  of  Reviews,  vol.  35,  p.  503,  April, 
1907. 

Examination  of  the  Eyes  of  School  Children.  J.  C.  ElfERHARDT.  Ele- 
mentary School  Teacher,  vol.  7,  p.  263,  Jan.,  1907. 

Free  Eyeglasses  for  School  Children.  Charities,  vol.  18,  p.  130,  April 
27,  1907. 

Sacrifice  of  the  Eyes  of  School  Children.  W.  D.  SCOTT.  Popular 
Science  Monthly,  vol.  71,  p.  303,  Oct.,  1907. 

Sanitary  Regulation  of  the  Schoolroom  and  Vision.  C.  A.  WOOD. 
Elementary  School  Teacher,  vol.  7,  p.  62,  Oct.,  1906. 

FOOD  QUESTIONS 

Influence  of  Diet  on  Endurance  and  General  Efficiency.     CHITTENDEN. 

Popular  Science  Monthly,  vol.  71,  p.  536,  Dec.,  1907. 
Pure  Food  Law  and  its  Results.     A.  LACKAY.     Outlook,  vol.  88,  p.  260, 

Feb.  I,  1908. 
Preservation  of  Food,  Scientific  American,  vol.  62,  p.  25907,  Dec.  29, 

1906. 
Principles  and   Practice  of  Food  Preserving.     Xature,  vol.   76,  p.  266, 

July  18,  1907. 

HEALTH 

Does  your  Work  Drive  You  ?     L.  II.  GULICK.     World's  Work,  vol.  15, 

p.  10020,  March,  1908. 
Fresh  Air  Method  to  Keep  us  Well.     R.  C.  NEWTON.     Ladies'  Home 

Journal,  vol.  25,  p.  26,  April,  1908. 
Health   Resolutions,  Good  and  Bad.     L.  II.  GUI.ICK.      World's    Work, 

vol.  15,  p.  9797,  Jan.,  1908. 

HEALTH  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

Health  of  School  Children.  G.  W.  WHARTON.  Outlook,  vol.  84, 
p.  662. 


212  APPENDIX 

Health  of  the  School  Child.     W.   L.  MACKENZIE.     Natur-e,  vol.   75, 

p.  435,  March  7,  1907. 
Effect  of  School   Life  upon  the  Health   of  School  Children.     G.  \V. 

JOHNSTON.     North  American  Review,  vol.  182,  p.  829. 
Physical  Conditions  of  Children  in  Elementary  Schools.    Nature,  vol.  73, 

P-  548. 
Relation  of  School  and  College  to  Health.     A.  W.  SOULE.     School  Re- 

vie-M,  vol.  n,  p.  817. 

Health  and  Education,  Nature,  vol.  76,  p.  508,  Sept.  12,  1907. 
Health  and  Education.     T.  C.  HORSFELL.     Contemporary  Review,  vol. 

89,  p.  340. 
Health  of  School  Girls.     N.  C.  WHITAKER.     School  Review,  vol.  16,  p. 

391,  June,  1908. 
Physical  Betterment  of  our  Growing  Girls.    Educational  Review,  vol.  36, 

p.  190,  Sept.,  1908. 
Physique  of  the  Public  School  Boy.    J.  H.  VINES.    Westminster  Revieiv, 

vol.  159,  p.  317. 

Physique  of  Scholars,  Athletes,  and  the  Average  Student.  D.  A.  SAR- 
GENT. Popular  Science  Monthly,  vol.  73,  p.  248,  Sept.,  1908. 

INTEMPERANCE 

Broader  Motive  for  School  Hygiene.    W.  H.  ALLEN.    Atlantic  Monthly, 

vol.  101,  p.  824,  June,  1908. 
Error  through  Strong  Drink.     J.  HAWTHORNE.     Cosmopolitan,  vol.  45, 

p.  198,  July,  1908. 
Evidence  against  Alcohol.      M.  A.  and  A.  J.  ROSANOKK.    McClure,  vol. 

32.  P-  557.  March,  1909. 
Fight  against  Alcohol.     A.  BRISBANE.     Cosmopolitan,  vol.  44,  pp.  492, 

549,    April,  May,  1908.     Harpers'    Weekly,  vol.  52,  p.  6,  April   25, 

1908. 

MALARIA 

How  Quinine  Fights  the  Germ  of  Malaria.     Review  of  Reviews,  vol.  39, 

p.  235,  Feb.,  1009. 
Malaria  in  the   West  Indies.     H.  A.  BALLOU.    Science,  vol.  28,  p.  885, 

Dec.  1 8,  1908. 

MEDICAL  INSPECTION 

School  Children  and  their  Medical  Supervision.  J.  J.  CRONIN.  Chari- 
ties, vol.  1 6,  p.  58,  April  7,  1906. 

Methods  and  Results  in  the  Medical  Supervision  of  Schools.  E.  B. 
HOAU.  Sierra  News,  San  Francisco,  May,  1909. 


REFERENCES   GROUPED    BY   SUBJECTS         213 

Considerations    Regarding    Medical    Inspection    in    Public    Schools. 

El)WAKi>   JACKSON.     American    Academy  of   Medicine,    Bulletin   6, 

p.  923,  April,  1905. 
Medical  Examiner  Systems.    S.  W.  ABBOT.    American  Journal  of  Social 

Science,  vol.  41,  p.  61. 
Medical    Inspection  of  Schools.     S.  D.   WALD.     Annals  of  American 

Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  vol.  25,  p.  290. 
How  may  the  Medical  and  Teaching  Professions  cooperate  to  improve 

the  Moral,  Mental,  and  Physical  Condition  of  the  Young?   American 

Academy  of  Medicine,  Bulletin  7,  p.  604,  Oct.,  1900. 
Examination    of    Minneapolis    School    Children.      Charities,    vol.    19, 

p.  1744,  March  21,  1908. 
Nurses  in  the  Public  Schools  of  New  York.     L.  L.  ROGKRS.     Charities, 

vol.  H6,  p.  65,  Apiil  7,  1906. 
Physical  and  Mental  Examinations  of  Schools  in  Chicago.      D.  P.  MAC- 

MILLAN.     Charities,  vol.  17,  p.  529. 

MOSQUITOES 

Mosquito  Extermination  Work.     H.  C.  WEEKS.     Scientific  American. 

vol.  64,  p.  155,  Sept.  7,  1907. 
Mosquito  Problem.     Scientific  American,  vol.  96,  p.  371. 

PLAYGROUNDS 

Playground  Legislation  in  Washington.     Charities,  vol.  17,  p.  434,  Dec. 

8,  1906;   p.  967,  March  2,  1907. 

The  City  Child.     J.  BRYCE.     Charities,  vol.  19,  p.  1661,  March  7,  1908. 
Health,  Morality,  and  the  Playground.      E.  E.  BROWN.      Charities,  vol. 

1 8,  p.  500,  Aug.  3,  1907. 
Playgrounds,  Progress  and  Tendencies,  1907.    Charities,  vol.  1 8,  p.  495, 

Aug.  3,  1907. 
Practical  Play  with  a  Sound  Basis.      World's   Work,  vol.  15,  p.  9504, 

Nov.,  1907. 
Union  of  Playgrounds  and  Public  Schools.     D.  H.  PERKINS.     Charities, 

vol.  1 8,  p.  538,  Aug.  3,  1907. 
Relation  of  Municipal  Playgrounds  to  Schools.     H.  B.  F.  MACFARLAND. 

Charitus,  vol.  18,  p.  545,  Aug.  3,  1907. 
Playground    Association   in    Philadelphia.      Charities,  vol.  2O,    p.  462, 

July  4,  1908. 

Playgrounds  for  New  York  City  School  Children.     L.  W.  BETTS.     Out- 
look, vol.  75,  p.  209. 


214  APPENDIX 

PUBLIC  HYGIENE 

A  Department  in  Public  Hygiene.    E.  B.  DE  GROOT.    Elementary  School 

Teacher,  vol.  6,  p.  40. 

Preventing  Sickness  a  City  Investment.  World's  Work,  vol.  12,  p.  7914, 
Aug.,  1906. 

SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

A  Broader  Motive  for  School  Hygiene.  W.  II.  ALLEN.  Atlantic  Monthly, 
vol.  101,  p.  824,  June,  1908. 

The  Next  Move  in  School  Supervision  —  Hygiene.  K.  L.  STEVENS. 
World's  Work,  vol.  16,  p.  10430,  July,  1908. 

Report  of  the  Committee  on  School  Hygiene  —  Worcester  Public  Educa- 
tional Association.  Pedagogical  Seminary,  vol.  13,  p.  230,  June,  1906. 

National  Program  for  Departments  of  School  Hygiene.  W.  II.  ALLEN. 
North  American  Review,  vol.  188,  p.  112,  July,  1908. 

Status  of  I  lygiene  in  the  American  College.  G.  L.  WEYLAN.  Educa- 
tional Review,  vol.  36,  p.  132,  Sept.,  1908. 

Hygiene  in  European  Schools.  Scientific  American,  vol.  64,  p.  381. 
Dec.  14,  1907. 

International  Congress  on  School  Hygiene,  1907.  Nature,  vol.  76,  pp. 
349,  382,  Aug.  8-15,  1907. 

International  Congress  on  School  Hygiene,  1907.  T.  LONDONDERRY. 
Nineteenth  Century,  vol.  62,  p.  388,  Sept.,  1907. 

London  Conferences  on  School  Hygiene.     Nature,  vol.  71,  p.  377. 

SCHOOL  SANITATION 

School  Sanitation.  W.  P.  GERHARD.  American  Architect  and  Build- 
ing News,  vol.  87,  p.  177. 

School  Architecture  and  Hygiene.  W.  P.  GKRHAKD.  American  Archi- 
tect and  Building  A'ws,  vol.  88,  p.  14. 

Deadly  Poisons  in  our  Schools.  Good  Housekeeping,  vol.  48,  p.  143, 
Feb.,  1909. 

Health  Laws  in  American  Schools.  American  Architect  and  Building 
News,  vol.  88,  p.  148. 

TEETH 

Oral  and  Dental  Conditions.  W.  R.  WOODBURY.  Charities,  vol.  21, 
p.  258,  Nov.  7,  1908. 

TUBERCULOSIS 

Consumptive  Convalescents  and  the  Land.  B.  HOLT.  Charities,  vol. 
1 8,  p.  230,  May  27,  1907. 


REFERENCES   GROUPLD   BY   SUBJI-XTS         ->\$ 

Institutional  Care  for  Karly  or  for  Advanced  Consumptives.  J.  II. 
Sen  IKK.  Charities,  vol.  21,  p.  242,  Nov.  7,  1908. 

Playgrounds  in  the  Prevention  of  Tuberculosis.  II.  H.  FAVII.I..  Lhari- 
lies,  vol.  18,  p.  501,  Aug.  3,  1907. 

Providence  Fresh  Air  School.  W.  E.  KKUERI.  Charities,  vol.  20,  pp. 
97-99,  April  1 8,  1908. 

Tuberculosis  and  the  Schools.  J.  A.  LOVVMAN.  Charities,  vol.  18, 
p.  657,  Sept.  7,  1907. 

Gold  Medal  Leaflet  on  Tuberculosis.  International  Congress  on  Tuber- 
culosis, 1908. 

Silver  Medal  Leaflet  on  Tuberculosis.  DK.  GKO.  KRKSS,  Los  Angeles, 
California. 

UNHK.AI.THKUL  OCCUPATIONS 

American  Women  at   Men's  Work.     Harpers'   Weekly,  vol.  51,  p   831, 

June  8,  1907. 
Hygiene  of  Work  in  Compressed  Air.     J.  S.  HAI.DINK.     Engineering 

Magazine,  vol.  35,  p.  91,  April,  1908. 
Injurious  Process  in   Workshops.      Scientific  American,  vol.  65,  p.  39, 

Jan.  18,  1908. 
National  Front  against  Child  Labor.     G.  TAVI.OK.      Charities,  vol.  21, 

p.  673,  Jan.  6,  1909. 
Unsettled  Question  about  Child   Labor.     O.    R.   LOVI.JOY.      Charities, 

vol.  21,  p.  673,  Jan.   16,  1909. 
Articles  by  Edwin  Markham  on  Child  Labor.     Cosmopolitan,  1907. 


INDEX 


Abdomen,  6,  17. 
Adenoids,  94,  103-106,  I IO. 
Adhesions,  62. 
Adulteration,  of  foods,  114. 

of  milk,  139,  144. 
Advertised  medicines,  157,  158. 

See  Medicine, 
Air,  Dry  and  humid,  95,  120. 

Fresh,  76,  87,  91,  116-121,  158. 

in  city  and  country,  88,  119,  120. 

spreads  germs,  87. 

See  Oxygen,  Ventilation. 
Albumen,  35. 
Alcoholic  drinks,  37,  52,  76,98,  155, 

'59- 

as  a  narcotic,  151. 
effect  on  the   body,  74,  75,    151- 

I54,'59- 

in  medicine,  157,  202. 
Alimentary  canal,  see  Digestive  tract. 
Anneba,  13. 
Anatomy,  defined,  2. 
Antitoxin,  171. 
Apoplexy,  48. 
Appendicitis,  18,  62. 
Appendix,  18,  19,  62. 
Arteries,  26,  41,  49. 
Artesian  wells,  145. 
Athletics,  161-166. 

and  alcohol,  153. 

Backbone,  see  Spinal  column. 
Bacteria,  and  disease,  60-65,  74,  So- 
93,  97,  106,   109,  no,  120,  129, 
130,  199-204. 
and  food,  135,  136. 


Bacteria  (contin.}. 

Description  of,  59,  60,  78-80,  87. 

Destruction  of,  79,  80,  86,  87,  1 13, 
20 1,  203,  204. 

in  milk,  89,  137-142. 

in  water,  85,  89,  145. 

Useful,  78,  79. 
Bakery,  Hygiene  of,  125. 
Bathing,  93,  94,  98,  in,  1 1 2. 

of  sick  persons,  128. 

Public  pools,  IO2,  113. 

Sea,  1 1 2. 
Bathroom,  124. 
Bedroom,  Furnishing  of,  123. 

Outdoor,  95,  96,  121-123. 

Ventilation  of,  88,  95,  119,  123. 
Bile,  1 8,  40. 
Bladder,  18. 
Blood,  22-29,  3°,  4!-43>  7°- 

poisoning,  6l. 
Blood  vessels,  Control  of,  48,  49. 

Description  of,  10,  21,  24-28. 

Dilation   and    contraction   of,    10, 
32,  47,  63,  94,  153. 

Functions  of,  21. 
Board  of  health,  98,   145,   168-170, 

173- 

Body,  The  human,  Cells  of,  12-14. 
compared    to    a    machine,    53-55, 

67,  72,  73- 

Defenses,  against  disease,  59-66. 
Divisions  of,  6,  17. 
Heat  of,  30-32. 
Organs  of,  6,  15-23. 
Systems  of,  21. 
Bones,  4-11,  21,  36,  65. 


217 


218 


INDEX 


Bowels,  40,  95,  107. 

Brain,  Cells  of,  13,  15,  1 6,  51. 

Defenses  of,  65. 

Effect  of  alcohol  on,  154. 

Functions  of,  II,  21,  45-52. 

Location  of,  6,  7,  1 7,  46. 

Structure  of,  45,  46. 
Breast-bone,  4,  5,  6. 
Breathing,  Control  of,  47,  49. 

Obstructions  to,  103-105. 

Organs  of,  21,  22. 

See  Air. 
Bronchial  tubes,  22,  62,  64,  97. 

Caffein,  135,  149. 
Callus,  65. 
Canned  foods,  135. 
Capillaries,  26,  28,  38,  41,  94,  112. 
Carbon  dioxide,  a  waste  of  the  body, 
54,  116. 

and  alcohol,  152,  153. 

in  combustion,  31,  152. 

in  the  blood,  23,  26. 
Carbon  foods,  33,  34,  38. 

in  combustion,  31. 
Cartilage,  7. 
Casein,  35. 

Catarrh,  64,  92,  95,  97,  105,  106,  108. 
Cells,  of  the  body,  1 2- 1 6,  21,  26,  28, 
30,68-71.    X 

One-celled  objects,  13,  68. 
Centers  in  the  brain,  45,  51. 
Cereals  as  food,  35,  108,  131,  133, 

'34- 

Cerebellum,  45,  46. 
Cerebrum,  45,  46. 
Cesspools,  124. 
Chemical,  food  changes,  39. 

stimulus,  148. 
Chest,  6,  1 7. 
Chicago,  Air  of,  120. 

Death  rate  in,  174. 

Sewage  of,  85,  145,  147. 

Smallpox  record  of,  173. 


Chicago,  Typhoid  fever  in,  1 74. 
Child  labor,  75-77. 
Chocolate,  37,  134,  149. 
Cholera,  81,  89,  130. 
Cigarette  smoking,  52,  155. 
Cilia,  62. 

Circulatory  system,  21,  24-27,  41-43. 
City,  Air  of  the,  88,  120. 
Cleanliness,  in  food,  113,  114,  124, 
137-144,  1 68. 

in  the  house,  122,  123. 

Personal,  77,  8l,  91,  113,  140. 

See  Bathing. 
Clothing,  carries  germs,  89. 

Disinfection  of,  87,  129,  171. 

in  sickness,  126,  129. 

Proper,  94,  95. 
Coffee,  37,  52,  75,  76,  135,  149,  150, 

159. 

Cold  storage  of  foods,  79,  135. 
Colds,  74,  92-97,  130. 
Combustion,  see  Oxidation. 
Constipation,  64,  94,  107,  108. 
Consumption,  see  Tuberculosis. 
Contagious  disease,  81-91. 

in  the  house,  129. 

Protection  against,  86,   129,  169- 

'73.  '75- 

See   TvplioiJ,  Tuberculosis,  etc. 
Corpuscles,  Red,  27. 

White,  27,  60,  6l. 
Cough,  64. 
Country,  Air  in,  88,  119-121. 

Disease  in,  93,  1 19. 
Cows,  Care  of,  139-144. 
Crime,  compared  to  disease,  169. 

relation  to  alcohol,  154. 
Cuba,  Disease  in,  83. 

Dairy,  Sanitary  conditions  in,    142- 

144,  1 68. 
Unsanitary,  90. 
Deafness,  97,  1 06. 
Death  rate,  137,  174,  176. 


INDEX 


219 


Decay,  Bacteria  of,  79. 

of  teeth,  109,  no,  130. 

Prevention  of  food  decay,  79. 
Dentist,  109,  no. 
Diaphragm,  6. 
Diarrhoea,  63. 
Diet,  107,  131,  133. 
Digestion,  19,  38-40,  107,  130. 

See  Indigestion. 
Digestive,  glands,  39. 

juices,  39,  40,  130. 

system,  19,  21. 

tract,  19,  65. 
Diphtheria,  78,  85,  89,  90,  150,  169, 

171. 
Disease,  and  alcohol,  154. 

and  digestion,  130. 

and  foods,  135,  136. 

and    milk    and    water,    137-141, 

I45-'4J- 

Causes  of,  72-80, 1 13, 1 14, 1 16, 1 20. 

Contagious,  81-91,  129,  169. 

Ignorant  ideas  of,  59,  81,  82,  156. 

Protection  against,  59-66,  169. 

Recovery  from,  70. 
Disinfection,  86,  87,  129,  171,  204. 

Bureau  of,  173,  175. 
Division  of  labor,  67-69. 
Dosing  habit,  158. 
Drainage,  1 15. 

See  Seivage. 

Drinking  fountain,  Hygienic,  86. 
Drugs,  52,  76,  98,  133. 

in  medicines,  157. 

in  tea  and  coffee,  135,  149. 
Ducts,  20,  39,  40. 
Dust,  and  food,  114,  125,  139,  142. 

and  germs,  60,  6l,  62,  75,  88,  92, 
94,  122,  201. 

Methods  of  dusting,  122. 
Dyspepsia,  131-133,  154,  159. 

Ears,  97,  106,  1 12. 

Eating,  Habits  of,  107,  131-133. 


Education  of  the  brain,  51,  52. 
Emulsirication,  38,  39. 

Energy.  53- 

Epidemics,  81,  83,  92,  140. 

See  Contagious  disease. 
Eustachian  tube,  97,  106. 
Evolution,  68. 

Excretion,  Organs  of,  1 6,  17,  21. 
Exercise,  58,  98,  158,  166. 
Expectoration,  Germs  in,  85,  87,  91, 

200-204. 
Eyes,  Crossed,  102. 

Protection  of,  63,  65. 

Troubles  with,  64,99-103, 108, 113. 

Fats  in  foods,  33-35,  38-40. 
Fermentation    of   food,    19,   40,    79, 

i«3.  131- 
Fever,  31. 

Filtering  water,  145,  146,  174. 
Fireplaces  as  ventilators,  117,  123. 
Flavors  in  foods,  37,  135. 
Flies  and  disease,  90,  91,  125,  144. 
Food,  Abuse  of,  130-133. 

Adulteration  of,  114,  139,  144. 

Cleanliness  of,  113,  114,  124,  137- 
144,  1 68. 

Digestion  of,  38-40,  107. 

Disease  and,  135,  136. 

Fermentation  of,   19,  40,   79,  113, 

I3I- 

for  the  cells,  13,  14,  26-28. 
Kinds  of,  33-38. 
laws,  167. 
Liquefied,  28,  38. 
Preserving,  79,  80. 
Table  for  selection  of,  134. 
Uses  of,  30-32. 
Food,    Milk,    and    Water    Supplies, 

Bureau  of,  173,  175. 
Food  principles,  33,  131. 
Fruits,  and  disease,  114,  125,  168. 
as   food,    33,   34,    35,     107,     131, 
134.  135- 


22O 


INDEX 


Fuel  foods,  30,  31,  35,  38,  73. 
Fumigation,  86,  87. 
Function  of  an  organ,  defined,  15. 
Furnishings,  harbor   germs,   89,  90, 

123. 
Hygienic,  122,  129. 

Germs,  see  Bacteria  and  Parasites. 
Glands,  20,  38,  49,  61. 
Gluten,  35,  36. 
Glycogen,  18. 

Government,  protection  against  dis- 
ease, 169-171. 
regulation  of  food  supplies,   167- 

169. 

Grenfell,  Dr  ,  153,  179. 
Gullet,  19,  47. 
Gymnasium,  162,  163. 

Habits,  Coffee  and  tea,  149,  150. 

Drug,  149,  158. 

Origin  of,  51,  52. 
Head,  Organs  in  the,  6. 
Headache,  22,  64,  106-108,  128,  130. 
Health,  of  the  home,  115-129. 

officers,  98,  173. 

Personal,  98-114,  178. 

Public,  167-176. 
Heart,  Control  of,  47,  49. 

Function  of,  i6,\2i,  24,  26. 

in  athletics,  162,  163. 

Location  of,  17. 

Structure  of,  16,  29. 

trouble,  131. 
Heat  in  the  body,  30-33,  35,  40,  41, 

53.  54,  '53- 
Heating  systems  and  ventilation,  95, 

118-120. 

Hip  bone,  4,  5,  6. 
Hookworm,  179. 
House,  bedroom,  bathroom,  kitchen, 

123-126. 

Furnishings  of,  121. 
Location  of,  115,  \i1. 


House,  Ventilation  of,  116-118. 
Hydrochloric  acid,  39. 
Hygiene,  defined,  2. 

See  Food,  Sanitation,  House. 

Ice  box,  Care  of,  126. 

India,  Plague  in,  83. 

Indigestion,  22,  64,  93,  94,  107-109, 

i3«-'33- 
Inherited,  disease,  200. 

weakness,  76. 
Inorganic  foods,  33,  38. 
Insects  and  disease,  83,  84,  90,  91, 

125- 
Intemperance,  in  drinking,  76,  149- 

154. 

in  eating,  131,  159. 
Intestines,  Control  of,  49. 

Description  of,  1 8,  19,  21,  64. 
Functions    of,    17,   20,    22,   38-40. 

107,  108. 
Location  of,  17,  19. 

Japan,  Sanitation  in  army,  1 14. 
Joints,  10. 

Kidneys,  16,  18,  21,  29,  66. 
Kitchen,  Hygiene  of,  124-127. 

Labrador,  179. 
Levers,  Bones  as,  7. 
Ligaments,  10. 
Light  for  eyes,  100-103. 
Liver,  17-21,  40. 
Lungs,  Control  of,  49. 

Functions    of,   14,    17,    18,    21-23, 
1 1 6,  117. 

in  athletics,  163. 

Location  of,  17,  22. 
Lymph,  26,  28,  149. 

glands,  20,  61. 

Malaria,  78,  85. 
Mastication,  39,  132. 


INDEX 


221 


Meat,  and  disease,  125. 

as  food,  33,  35,  134. 

Inspection  of,  89,  167,  168. 
Mechanical,  food  changes,  39. 

stimulus,  148. 
Medical,  examiner  in  school,  98,  99. 

Inspection,  Bureau  of,  173,  175. 
Medicine,  Advertised  or  patent,  63, 
64, 82,  95,  97,  108,  157-160,  202. 

Ignorant  ideas  of,  156. 

Natural,  61. 

Strychnine  and  caffein  as,  149. 

Testimonials  of,  157. 

Use  and  abuse  of,  73,  156-160. 
Medulla,  45-48. 
Mental,  alertness,  166. 

conditions  in  eating,  132,  133. 

dullness,  104,  107. 
Milk,  Bacteria  in,  137-142. 

carries  disease,  89,    114,  136-141. 

Food  value  of,  33,  34,  35,  36,  134, 

137- 

in  the  ice  box,  126. 

Pasteuri/.ed,  139,  142. 

Sanitary  production  of,  124,    139- 

144. 
Mosquitoes  and  disease,  83,  84,  90, 

91. 

Motor  cells  and  nerves,  16,  47. 
Mouth,  38,  39. 

breathing,  104. 
Muscles,  and  alcohol,  153. 

Control  of,  II,  44,  47,  49. 

Description  of,  7-11,  36,  42. 

in  exercise,  165^166. 
Muscular  system,  21. 
Myosin,  35. 

Nansen,  153. 
Narcotics,  151-155. 
Nerves,  21,  49-52. 

and  alcohol,  154. 

cells,  1 6,  49,  52,  70. 

Deadening  of,  64. 


Nerves,  fibers,  48,  49-52. 

Motor  and  sensory,  1 1,  16,  47. 
Nervous  system,  6,  u,  16,21,  44-52. 

and  alcohol,  151. 

Nervousness,  64,  99,  106,  108,  159. 
New    York    City,    Eye     defects    in 

schools,  99. 

Nitrogen  foods,  33,  35,  37. 
Nose,  21,  22,  62,  63,  74,  103-106. 
Nursing  in  the  home,  126,  128. 
Nutrition,  Poor,  94,  108. 

Occupations,  Healthful,  77. 

Unhealthful,  75,  76. 
Oculist,  100. 

Oils  in  foods,  33,  35,  38. 
Opium,  151,  152. 
Optician,  100. 
Organic  foods,  33. 
Organs  of  the  body,  Control  of,  44. 

Description  of,  15-23. 

in  sickness,  70,  72. 

Location  of,  6,  17,  19,  22. 
Osseous  system,  21. 
Outdoor,  life,  164,  201,  202. 

sleeping,  95,  96,  121-123. 
Oxidation,  31,  40-42. 
Oxygen,  and  lamps,  119. 

defined,  22. 

for  the  cells,  14,  30. 

in  combustion,  31,  41. 

in  the  blood,  23,  26-28,  41. 

Pain,  a  symptom,  63. 

"  Pain    killers,"    63.       See    Medi- 
cine. 

Relief  of,  128. 
Panama,  Disease  in,  84. 
Pancreas,  19,  20,  39. 
Pancreatic  juice,  40. 
Paralysis,  48. 
Parasites,  78,  136,  179. 
Pasteurization  of  milk,  139,  142. 
Patent  medicines,  see  Medicine. 


222 


INDEX 


Pepsin,  39. 

Peptones,  38-40. 

Perspiration,  29,  32,  41,  54,  63,  94, 

1 20. 

Philadelphia  filter  system,  146. 
Physician,  73,  74,  98,  99,  158-161, 

202. 

Physiology  defined,  2. 
Plague,  83,  90,  169,  170,  174. 
Plasma,  27. 

Playgrounds,  frontispiece. 
Plumbing,  123,  126. 
Pneumonia,  85,  86,  88,  97,  154. 
Pork,  Parasite  in,  136. 
Proteids,  33,  35-40. 
Protoplasm,  12,  68. 
Ptomaine  poisons,  135. 
Public  Health  and  Marine  Hospital 

Service,  171. 

Quarantine,  86,  129,  169-171,  175. 

Reading,  Conditions  for,  100-103. 

Reflex  action,  II,  46-52,  65. 

Repair  of  the  body,  30,  32,  33,  37,  54. 

Reservoir  water,  145. 

Resistance  to  disease,  59,  93,  200. 

Respiratory  system,  21,  22. 

Ribs,  4,  5,  6. 

Rochester,  N.Y.,  milk  supply,  144. 

Saliva,  20,  38,  39. 
Salt,  as  a  stimulus,  148. 

in  foods,  33,  36,  38. 
San  Francisco,  Plague  in,  83. 

quarantine  station,  170. 
Sanitation,  81,  1 14. 

Bureau  of,  173,  175. 

See  Cleanliness. 
Seal),  65. 
School,  athletics,  161-166. 

Conditions  in  the  schoolroom,  103. 

Contagious  disease  in,  86,  170. 

inspection,  175. 


School,  physician,  98,  99,  161. 
Secretion,  37,  149. 

Organs  of,  17,  18. 
Sensory  cells  and  nerves,  1 6,  47. 
Septic  tanks  for  sewage,  147. 
Sewage,  168,  169. 

and  typhoid,  85,  88,  124,  140,  145. 

and  water  supplies,  85,  88,  91,  98, 
113,  124,  145-147,  168,  169. 

Disposal  of,  115,  147. 
Sewer,  farms,  147,  168. 

gas,  77,  124,  125. 
Shoulder  bone,  4,  5. 
Sickness,  in  the  home,  126,  128,  129. 

Organs  and  cells  in,  70. 

Preventable,  i,  59,  131,  169. 

See  Disease. 
Skeleton,  4,  5. 
Skin,  65,  70. 

Blood  vessels  in,  32,  41. 

Functions  of,  17,  18,  29,  64. 

troubles,  107,  113. 
Skull,  4,  5,  7,  46. 
Sleep,  75,  1 10,  in. 

Outdoor,  95,  96,  121-123. 
Smallpox,  85,  169,  170,  172,  173. 
Spinal  column,  4-7. 
Spinal  cord,  7,  1 1,  21,  45-51. 
Spleen,  19,  20. 
Starch  foods,  33,  34-36,  37,  133. 

Digestion  of,  38-40,  131. 
Sterili/ing,  113,  136,  143,  171. 
Stimulants,  defined,  148. 

F.ffect  of,  1 50. 

in  coffee  and  tea,  37,  52,  149. 
Stomach,  64. 

Functions  of,  12,  19. 

in  digestion,  22,  38,  39,  107,  131. 

Location  of,  17,  19. 
Stoves  and  ventilation,  1 19. 
Strychnine,  149,  150. 
Sugars  in  foods.  33,  34,  37-40,  131. 
Sunlight,   Value  of,  75,87,  91,   III, 
110,  158. 


INDEX 


223 


Superstitions  about  disease,  59,  Si, 

82,  156. 

Sweeping,  Methods  of,  122,  129. 
Swimming,  1 1 2,  153,  164,  165. 
Sympathetic     nervous    system,    48, 

49- 
Systems  of  the  body,  21. 

Tannic  acid,  135,  149. 
Tea,  37,  52,  75,  76,  135,  149,  159. 
Teeth,  98,  104,  105,  108-110,  130. 
Temperature,  and  alcohol,  153. 

of  animals,  31. 

of  the  body,  28,  31,  32,  41,  63. 
Tendons,  10. 

Tenement  inspection,  175. 
Tent  life,  123,  164,  2O2. 
Throat,  21. 

Bacteria  in,  74. 

troubles,  64,  97,  103-106. 
Thyroid,  20. 
Tissues,  15,  21,  31. 
Tobacco,  52,  98,  155-159. 
Tongue,  9. 
Tonsilitis,  105,  106. 
Tonsils,  64,  94,  104-106. 
Toothache,  no. 
Trichina,  136. 
Tuberculin  test,  141. 
Tuberculosis,  199-204. 

and  alcohol,  154,  202. 

Causes  of,  75,  84,  89,  90,  97,  119, 
123,  163,  199-204. 

Control  of,  84. 

Cure  for,   62,   96,   121,   158,  199- 
204. 

in  cattle,  140,  141,  144. 

Various  forms  of,  62. 

Victims  of,  84,  85,  179,  180,  199. 
Typhoid  fever,  and  alcohol,  154. 

Bacteria  of,  78. 


Typhoid  fever  (contin.). 

Caused  by  polluted  water,  85,  88, 

89,  124,  140,  145,  146. 
Causes  of,  89,  90. 
Control  of,  84. 
Death  rate  from,  85,  1 74. 
Susceptibility  to,  130. 

Urine,  18. 

Vaccination,  172,  173. 

Vegetables,  and  disease,    125,    1 68. 

as  food,  33,  34,  35,  134,  135. 
Veins,  26,  41. 

Ventilation,  Effects  of  poor,  23,  54, 
74,  77,  87,  92,  94,  108,  1 16,  1 19, 
1 20,  179. 

Methods  of,  II6-I2O. 
Vertebrie,  7. 
Vital  Statistics,  Bureau  of,  173,  174. 

Walking,  as  exercise,  163. 

Muscles  in,  9. 
Wastes  of  the  body,  20-23,  27~29« 

42,  43.  54- 
Water,  carries  disease,  85,88,  91, 145. 

Contamination  of,  85,  88,  89,  91, 
113,  124,  I45-I47- 

Drinking  fountain,  86. 

Filtration  of,  145,  146,  174. 

for  the  body,  33,  36,  37,  38,  107, 
1 08. 

in  the  ice  box,  126. 

Kinds  of,  144,  145. 
Well  water,  145. 
Whisky,  see  Alcoholic  drinks. 
Will,  The,  45-52,  152. 
Windpipe,  21,  22. 

Yeast  plants,  13,  14. 
Yellow  fever,  83,  90. 


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